Volume-5 , Issue-11 , Nov 2019, ISSN 2454-9312 (Online), 2454-6143 (Print) Go Back

• Open Access   Article

  Determinants of Smallholder Maize Farmer’s Extent of Adoption of Modern Farming Practices in Kukhanyeni Constituency of Eswatini

  Douglas Kibirige, Ajay S. Singh, Sotja G. Dlamini, Ntokozo R. Makhanya

  Research Paper | Journal-Paper (IJSRMS)

  Vol.5 , Issue.11 , pp.72-79, Nov-2019

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  Eswatini still import maize from the neighbouring countries to supplement its internal demand, whereas it has potential of being self-sufficient in this staple food. The government and others stakeholders have introduced new technologies to improve productivity but their effects are not yet known. Therefore, this study aimed at analysing the effects of new farming practices on rural smallholder dry maize productivity. The results of this study indicate that the average age of the farmers was 41 years, with mean years in school of 10, mean farming experience of 15 years, average household size of 10 people, average land size of 2.44 hectares and average farm maize output of 1117.1 Kgs/ha. Interviewed farmers were mostly male (60%) and married (66%). The most adopted new farming practices used by smallholder farmers were tractor drawn (86%), used hybrid seeds (79%), mono-cropping (73%), agro-chemical use in controlling pests (71%), and liming (61%). The farmers were still using hand hoe for weeding and dependent on rainfall. Factors influencing maize farmer’s productivity were farmer’s age, cropping system, liming and use of irrigation. Determinants of farmers’ adoption to agricultural modern technologies in maize production included farmer’s age, marital status, access to extension services, membership to a farmer cooperative and maize yields. This study concludes that older smallholder farmers, practicing mono-cropping and use liming in their fields are more likely to harvest low yields though can improve their yields with increased irrigation. Furthermore, extension workers and other farmer service providers should note that older farmers, receiving more extension services and members of cooperative groups are less likely to adopt modern farming technologies while married farmers with relatively higher maize yields are more likely to adopt more modern farming technologies. The study recommends that stakeholders should develop programs that attract youth in farming, and train them in proper use of mono-cropping system, and liming while investing in establishing more irrigation schemes.

  Key-Words / Index Term
  Modern farming practices, Maize, Productivity, Smallholder farmers, Kingdom of Eswatini

  References
  [1] E. Musaba, J. Pali-Shikhulu, G. Matchaya, P. Chilonda, S. Nhlengethwa, “Monitoring Agriculture Sector Performance in Swaziland: Investment, Growth and Poverty Trends, 2000—2011”, ReSAKSS-SA Annual Trends and Outlook Report 2012. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), 2014.
  [2] Eswatini (Swaziland) Economy Profile (2018).
  Retrieved at https://www.indexmundi.com/swaziland/economy_profile.html
  [3] Food Agriculture Organization, Special report FAO/WFP, “Crop and Food Security Assessment Mission to Swaziland”. Rome FAO, 2017.
  [4] D. D. Dlamini and M. B. Masuku, “Land Tenure and Land Productivity: A Case of Maize Production in Swaziland”. Asian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Vol. 3(4), pp. 301-307, 2011.
  [5] S. I. Dlamini, M. B. Masuku, J. I. Rugambisa, “Technical efficiency of maize production in Swaziland: A stochastic frontier approach)”, African Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. 7(42), pp. 5628-5636, 2012.
  [6] Paul L. Woomer, Canon Norris Savala, Celister Kaleha, Moses Chamwada, “Characterization of Small-scale Farming Systems in West Kenya and Opportunities for Their Improvement Universal”, Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 4(4), pp. 109-120, 2016.
  [7] F. E. Omorogbee and E. A. Onemolease, “Farmers` Characteristics and Adoption` of Recommended Practices Under the Fadama Project Scheme in Edo State Nigeria”, 2007.
  [8] O. I. Oladele and O. P. Fawole, “Sustainable Food Crop Production Through Multiple Cropping Patterns among Farmers in South Western Nigeria”. Journal of Human Ecology, Vol. 21(4), pp. 245-249, 2007.
  [9] T. S. Mkhabela, “A review of the use of manure in small-scale crop production systems in South Africa”. Journal of plant protection, Vol. 29, pp. 1157-1185, 2006.
  [10] T. Hinduma, “Local Crop Genetic Resource Utilization and Management in Gindeberet, west central Ethiopia”. Published MSc Thesis. Management of Natural Resources and Sustainable Agriculture (MNRSA). Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 2006.
  [11] S. D. M. Magagula, E. V. Dlamini, E. M. Mkhwanazi, “Modern Agriculture for Swaziland (2nd ed)”. Oxford University, 2007.
  [12] Y. L. Idrisa, B. O. Ogunbameru, M. C. Madukwe, “Logit and Tobit analyses of the determinants of likelihood of adoption and extent of adoption of improved soybean seed in Borno State, Nigeria”, Greener Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Vol. 2 (2), pp. 037-045, 2012.
  [13] A. Balarane and O. I. Oladele, “Awareness and use of agricultural market information among small scale farmers in Ngaka Modiri”. Life Science Journal, Vol. 9 (32), pp. 57-62, 2012.
  [14] Khalil Clara Aida, Piero Conforti, Ipek Ergin, Pietro Gennari, “Defining small-scale food producers to monitor target 2.3. of the 2030 agenda for sustainable development”, FAO Statistics Division; Working Paper Series ESS / 17-12, 2017.
  [15] T. Abdulai and S. Eberlin, “Technical Efficiency of Maize Farmers across Various Agro Ecological Zones of Ghana”. Journal of Agriculture & Rural Development, Vol. 3(1), pp. 149-172, 2001.
  [16] W. C. Motes, Global Harvest Initiative, Washington, DC. 2010.
  [17] M. Masuku, “Technical efficiency of maize production in Swaziland; A stochastic frontier approach”, African Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 7(42), pp. 5628-5636, 2012.
  [18] A. R. Kaliba, K. Mazvimavi, T. L. Gregory, F. M. Mgonja & M. Mgonja, “Factors affecting adoption of improved sorghum varieties in Tanzania under information and capital constraints”, Agricultural and Food Economics, Vol. 6:18, pp. 1-21, 2018.
  [19] V. P. Nchinda, T. E. Ambe, N. Holvoet, W. Leke, M. A. Che, S. P. Nkwate, S. B. Ngassam, D. K. Njualem, “Factors influencing the adoption intensity of improved yam (Dioscorea spp.) seed technology in the western highlands and high guinea savannah zones of Cameroon”, Journal of Applied Biosciences,Vol. 36, pp. 2389-2402, 2010.
  [20] Gideon Danso-Abbeam, A. B. Joshua, D. S. Ehiakpor, N. M. Franklin, “Adoption of improved maize variety among farm households in the northern region of Ghana”. Cogent Economics & Finance,Vol. 5, 2017.
  

  Citation
  Douglas Kibirige, Ajay S. Singh, Sotja G. Dlamini, Ntokozo R. Makhanya, "Determinants of Smallholder Maize Farmer’s Extent of Adoption of Modern Farming Practices in Kukhanyeni Constituency of Eswatini," International Journal of Scientific Research in Multidisciplinary Studies , Vol.5, Issue.11, pp.72-79, 2019

• Open Access   Article

  Sources of International Law

  Brij Bihari Prasad

  Review Paper | Journal-Paper (IJSRMS)

  Vol.5 , Issue.11 , pp.80-88, Nov-2019

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  Sources of law provides the evidence for existence of law from which the validity and force of law is derived. Any case is decided on the application of sources of law. In the same manner, whenever there is international dispute between States or violation of human rights of persons then such case is decided by the application of any of sources of international law. The relationship of one State with other State, International Organization and Persons are established and regulated by sources of international law. International law is not codified law at all. According to Article 38 (1) of Statute of International Court of Justice, there are four sources of international law, which are ‘international convention’, ‘international custom’, ‘general principles of law recognized by civilized state’ and, ‘international judicial decision or Arbitral tribunal decisions. However, other fifth sources of international law ‘decisions or determinations of international organization’ is becoming more popular. The entire international legal system is operated by mainly three organs based on sources of international law. These three organs are ‘International Law-making Authority’ (i.e., General Assembly or any other appropriate Authority for international legislation), ‘International Court of Justice’ (International Judiciary) and ‘Security Council’ (International Executive).

  Key-Words / Index Term
  International law; Sources of law; Sources of International Law; Case laws

  References
  [1] Dr. N.V. Paranjape, ‘Studies in Jurisprudence and Legal Theory’, Central Law Agency, pp. 233 (80th ed, 2016)
  [2] Fuller L: Anatomy of the law, pp. 69
  [3] Supra 1, at 298
  [4] Ibid, at 300
  [5] Ibid, at 311
  [6] West Rand Central Gold Mining Company Ltd, vs. R, 19052 K.B. 291
  [7] P.C.I.J. Ser, A. No. 10, P. 16
  [8] J.E.S. Fawcett, The law of Nations, London, 1968 pp. 24-25
  [9] Article 38(1) (d) of the Statute of ICJ
  [10] INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE, available at,https://ijrcenter.org/universal-tribunals-treaty-bodies-and-rapporteurs/international-court-of-justice/, last seen on 20/11/2019
  [11] Dr. S.K. Kapoor, International Law & Human Rights, Central Law Agency, pp. 80 (21st ed., 2017)
  [12] Richard B. Bilder, ‘An Overview of International Dispute Settlement’, ‘Emory Journal of International Dispute Resolution’, Vol. 1, No. 8, pp. 1, 1986
  [13] Cristoph Schreuer, ‘Sources of International law, Scope and Application: Emirates Lecture Series 28’, The Emirates Centre for Strategies Studies and Research, pp. 11 & 19
  [14] Professor Christopher Greenwood, ‘Sources of International Law: An Introduction’, pp. 1, 2008
  [15] Federal Department of Foreign Affairs FDFA, ‘ABC of International Law’, pp. 31
  [16] Ibid, at 33
  [17] Supra 15, at 30
  [18] I.C.J. (1986) Rep. 14
  [19] I.C.J. Reports, 1986, P. 14.

  Citation
  Brij Bihari Prasad, "Sources of International Law," International Journal of Scientific Research in Multidisciplinary Studies , Vol.5, Issue.11, pp.80-88, 2019

• Open Access   Article

  Screening of Oryza sativa Indigenous Rhizobacteria for its Bio-control and Plant Growth Promoting Potential

  Shyama P. Nair, Mridul Lal Lakshmanan P.V., Athira C., Henna Hameed V.V., Radha T., Saranya Devi K.

  Research Paper | Journal-Paper (IJSRMS)

  Vol.5 , Issue.11 , pp.89-97, Nov-2019

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  Bacteria that colonize plant roots and enhance the plant growth are denoted as Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR). The objective of this study is to isolate and identify Oryza sativa indigenous rhizobacteria and test for its, bio-control and various plant growth promoting traits under in-vitro condition. Nine rhizobacterial colonies isolated from healthy rice rhizosphere soil were screened for bio-control activity against rice pathogen Helminthosporium oryzae (rice brown spot) and Rhizoctonia solani (sheath blight) by performing dual culture method. The isolate B9 showed maximum antagonism against R. solani (73.7%) followed by isolate B2 (51.2%), isolate B1 (47.5%) and isolate B5 (42.5%) with different range of mycelial inhibition. Among nine rhizobacterial isolates tested, the growth of pathogenic fungi H. oryzae was only inhibited by the isolate B9 (20.5%). The isolates B1, B2, B5 and B9 exhibited maximum bio-control activities were further screened for different PGP traits, such as Phosphate (P) solubilization, Indole-3-Acetic Acid (IAA) production, Hydrogen Cyanide production (HCN) and extracellular enzyme production under in-vitro condition. The isolate B9 revealed the maximum P solubilization efficiency (99 SE), 45 µg/ml of IAA, HCN, amylase and cellulase production in maximum amount. The isolate B9 exhibited maximum bio-control, and PGP traits were identified by morphological and biochemical characterization and it was identified as Bacillus subtilis. In pot experiment, the rice seeds treated with B. subtilis exhibited significant shoot and root biomass when compared with un-inoculated rice and fungus-infected rice. This study highlighted the beneficial properties of native PGPR’s on growth promotion of rice and it could be formulated as bio-control as well as plant growth promoting agent, to reduce the application of chemical fertilizers in agricultural lands.

  Key-Words / Index Term
  Bacillus subtilis, Oryza sativa, Helminthosporium oryzae, Rhizobacteria, Rhizoctonia solani

  References
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  [7] J. R. Montealegre, R. Reyes, L. M. Perez, R. Herrera, “Selection of bioantagonistic bacteria to be used in biological control of Rhizotonia solani in tomato. Electron J Biotechnol, vol. 6 issue. 2, 2003.
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  Citation
  Shyama P. Nair, Mridul Lal Lakshmanan P.V., Athira C., Henna Hameed V.V., Radha T., Saranya Devi K., "Screening of Oryza sativa Indigenous Rhizobacteria for its Bio-control and Plant Growth Promoting Potential," International Journal of Scientific Research in Multidisciplinary Studies , Vol.5, Issue.11, pp.89-97, 2019

• Open Access   Article

  Flexural Properties of Downscaled Dowel-Type-Fastener Laminated Timber

  O. Ogunrinde, M. Gong, Y.H. Chui, L. Li

  Research Paper | Journal-Paper (IJSRMS)

  Vol.5 , Issue.11 , pp.98-104, Nov-2019

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  Abstract
  Use of nail-laminated timber (NLT) in structural buildings has steadily increased in recent years, which calls for a need to optimize the design of its assemblies. This study was aimed at examining the effect of nailing patterns on the flexural properties of unspliced NLT specimens. To reach this, the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of each lumber piece was determined using a long-span centre-point bending test to ensure that all pieces of lumber used were in the same MOE range. A type of downscaled NLT specimen was designed and fabricated using nails, which were 30 mm in thickness, 44 mm in width, and 730 mm in length. The 3D ring shank nails used were 30 mm in length and 2.4 mm in diameter. Three nail spacing (i.e. 60, 85 and 110 mm) were used in fabrication of the NLT. The glue-laminated timber (GLT) specimens of the same dimensions were manufactured for comparison purposes. The specimens were tested under four-point bending. The apparent modulus of elasticity MOEapp and apparent modulus of rupture MORapp of each specimen were measured. It was found that the solid group had the highest MOEapp of 10,836 MPa, while the NLT group of 60-mm-nail-spacing had MOEapp of 10,145 MPa and the NLT group of 110-mm-nail-spacing had the lowest MOEapp of 9,254 MPa. As for the MORapp, the GLT group had the highest value of 88 MPa followed by the 60-mm-nail-spacing NLT group (75 MPa) and the 110 mm-nail-spacing NLT group (69 MPa). The 60-mm-nailing NLT group appeared to exhibit the best performance, which was recommended for full-size specimen tests.

  Key-Words / Index Term
  Nailing pattern, laminated timber, ring shank nail, stiffness, apparent modulus of elasticity, and apparent modulus of rupture

  References
  [1] Williams G.D, Bohnhoff D.R, and Moody R.C. Bending properties of four-layer nail- laminated posts. FPL-RP-528. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory. Madison, WI, USA. 1994.
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  [4] Bohnhoff D.R, Moody R.C, Verrill S.P and Shirek L.F. Bending properties of reinforced and unreinforced spliced nail-laminated posts. Res. Pap. FPL-RP-503. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI, USA.1991.
  [5] Andrew J.H and Bohnhoff, D.R. Bending properties of wood I‐Sections fabricated with screws and polyurethane Adhesive. Journal of Structural Engineering. Vol 139 (11):1-12, 2013.
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  [9] ASTM. Standard test methods of static tests of lumber in structural sizes, American society for testing and materials (ASTM), D198-15, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2015.
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  [11] Bohnhoff D.R, Moody R.C, Verrill S.P and Shirek L.F. Bending properties of reinforced and unreinforced spliced nail-laminated posts. Res. Pap. FPL-RP-503. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI, 1991.
  

  Citation
  O. Ogunrinde, M. Gong, Y.H. Chui, L. Li, "Flexural Properties of Downscaled Dowel-Type-Fastener Laminated Timber," International Journal of Scientific Research in Multidisciplinary Studies , Vol.5, Issue.11, pp.98-104, 2019