The Biological Characteristics of Human Rotavirus and Their Relationship to Gastroenteritis, As a Literature Review

Ali R. Hameed¹ , Bakri Y. Mohamed² , Adam D. Abakar³ , Karim S. Ali⁴

Section:Review Paper, Product Type: Journal-Paper
Vol.8 , Issue.5 , pp.51-58, Oct-2021

Online published on Oct 31, 2021

Copyright © Ali R. Hameed, Bakri Y. Mohamed, Adam D. Abakar, Karim S. Ali . This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
 

View this paper at   Google Scholar | DPI Digital Library

XML View     PDF Download

How to Cite this Paper

Abstract :
Rotavirus Group A (RVA) is still the leading cause of severe acute diarrhea in children all over the world. Ruth Bishop and her colleagues identified the virus in humans in 1973, and it belongs to the Reoviridae family, Genus Rotavirus (Group III – dsRNA). The virus has a segmented double-stranded RNA genome and is non-enveloped, icosahedral, and triple-layered. Each of the 11 segments of the viral genome encodes at least six structural proteins (VP1 through VP4, VP6 and VP7), as well as five or six nonstructural proteins (NSP1-6) depending on the strain. Rotavirus is known for transmitting from person to person via the feces–oral route. The RV may also be spread through feces-contaminated water in low-income communities. The RV might also be handed down from one child to the next by polluting contaminated surfaces. Rotaviruses (RVs) cause diarrhea and enterocyte death when they infect mature enterocytes on the tips of the villi of the small intestine. Symptoms of RV infection, including acute watery diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and a low-grade fever, can last for days and cause dehydration. Rotavirus infection was detected by electron microscopy, immunochromatography, EnzymeLinked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), RNA PAGE, and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Due to the lack of a particular antiviral treatment, effective RV vaccinations are beneficial in reducing morbidity and death. Oral Rotavirus vaccinations are available worldwide (RotaTeq and Rotarix).

Key-Words / Index Term :
Rotavirus, Discovered, Structures, Target organ, Gastroenteritis, Pathogenesis

References :
[1] OKOH, Jocelyn Cletus, Innocent Okonkwo OGBONNA, and Nasisi Namuma SHITTA. "Detection of Rotavirus Vp6 Antigen in Faeces of Asymptomatic School-Aged Pupils in Gboko, Benue State of Nigeria. Vol 12, Issue 6, pp. 168-174, 2019.
[2] Troeger, Christopher, Ibrahim A. Khalil, Puja C. Rao, Shujin Cao, Brigette F. Blacker, Tahmeed Ahmed, George Armah et al. "Rotavirus vaccination and the global burden of rotavirus diarrhea among children younger than 5 years." JAMA pediatrics. Vol 172, Issue10, pp. 958-965, 2018.
[3] Flewett, T. H., A. S. Bryden, Heather Davies, G. N. Woode, JaniceC Bridger, and JoannaM Derrick. "Relation between viruses from acute gastroenteritis of children and newborn calves." The Lancet.. Vol 304, Issue7872, pp.61-63, 1974.
[4] Che, Liang, and Mohammad Shahidehpour. "DC microgrids: Economic operation and enhancement of resilience by hierarchical control." IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid . Vol 5, 5, pp 2517-2526, 2014.
[5] Lin, Frank R., and Marilyn Albert. "Hearing loss and dementia–who is listening. pp.61-63, 2014
[6] Parashar, Umesh D., Christopher J. Gibson, Joseph S. Bresee, and Roger I. Glass. "Rotavirus and severe childhood diarrhea." Emerging infectious diseases".Vol 12, Issue 2, pp. 304, 2006.
[7] Damanka, Susan Afua, Chantal Ama Agbemabiese, Francis Ekow Dennis, Belinda Larteley Lartey, Theophilus Korku Adiku, Christabel Chika Enweronu-Laryea, and George Enyimah Armah. "Genetic analysis of Ghanaian G1P [8] and G9P [8] rotavirus A strains reveals the impact of P [8] VP4 gene polymorphism on P-genotyping." PloS one.Vol 14, Issue 6, pp. e0218790-63, 2019
[8] Patton, John T. "Rotavirus diversity and evolution in the post-vaccine world" Discovery medicine .Vol 13, Issue 68, pp. 85, 2012.
[9] Lion, Thomas. "Adenovirus infections in immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients." Clinical microbiology reviews..Vol 27, Issue. 3, pp. 441-462, 2014.
[10] Bouseettine, Rihab, Najwa Hassou, A. Hatib, B. Berradi, Hlima Bessi, and Moulay Mustapha Ennaji. "Worldwide Emerging and Reemerging Rotavirus Genotypes: Genetic Variability and Interspecies Transmission in Health and Environment." In Emerging and Reemerging Viral Pathogens. Academic Press. pp. 1017-1040, 2020.
[11] Estes, Mary K., Gagandeep Kang, Carl Q-Y. Zeng, Sue E. Crawford, and Max Ciarlet. "Pathogenesis of rotavirus gastroenteritis." In Novartis Foundation Symposium. Chichester; New York; John Wiley. pp. 82-100, 2021.
[12] Vlasova, Anastasia N., Joshua O. Amimo, and Linda J. Saif. "Porcine rotaviruses: epidemiology, immune responses and control strategies".Vol 9, Issue 3,pp.48, 2017.
[13] Bishop, Ruth. "Discovery of rotavirus: Implications for child health." Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology . Vol 24, pp. S81-S85, 2009.
[14] Arcangeletti, Maria Cristina, Flora De Conto, Federica Pinardi, Maria Cristina Medici, Pierpaolo Valcavi, Francesca Ferraglia, Federica Motta et al. "Electron microscopy as a reliable tool for rapid and conventional detection of enteric viral agents: a five-year experience report." Acta bio-medica: Atenei Parmensis. Vol 76, Issue 3,pp.165-170,2005.
[15] Biswas, Sanjoy Kanti, Nahid Sultana, Md Badruddoza, Md Anwarul Azim, and Rajat Sankar Roy Biswas. "Immunochromatographic Test and ELISA for Detection of Rotavirus in Fecal Sample: A Comparative Study." Chattagram Maa-O-Shishu Hospital Medical College Journal.?Vol 18, Issue 2,pp.7-11,2019.
[16] Vainio, Kirsti, Svein A. Nordbø, Gro Njølstad, Gunnar Størvold, Henrik Døllner, Cathrine Midgaard, Franziskus Johannes Bosse et al. "Detection and characterization of group A rotaviruses in children hospitalized with acute gastroenteritis in Norway, 2006–2008." Journal of medical virology . Vol 81, Issue 10,pp. 1839-1844,2009.
[17] Mousavi-Nasab, Seyed Dawood, Farzaneh Sabahi, Hooman Kaghazian, Mahdi Paryan, Siamak Mirab Samiee, Mostafa Ghaderi, Fatemeh Zali, and Manoochehr Makvandi. "A Real-Time RT-PCR assay for genotyping of Rotavirus." Iranian Biomedical Journal. Vol 24, Issue 6,pp. 399,2020.
[18] Raorane, Abhay, Zunjar Dubal, Sandeep Ghatak, Michael Mawlong, B. Susngi, Virendra Gaonkar, Eknath Chakurkar, and Sukhadeo Barbuddhe. "Genotypic determination of human group A rotaviruses from Goa and Meghalaya states, India." Heliyon. Vol 6, Issue 8,pp. e04521,2020.
[19] Yadav, Monika, Priti Agarwal, Mukesh Sharma, Pankaj Abrol, and Shobha Broor. "Comparison of Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay and Immunochromatography for Rotavirus Detection in Children below Two Years with Acute Gastroenteritis." Indian Journal of Health Sciences and Care 6, no. 1 (2019): 24-27. Vol 6, Issue 1,pp. 24-27,2019.
[20] Shao, Lulu. "Rotavirus Pathogenesis, Innate Immunity and Their Immune Modulation by Probiotics in a Piglet Model and in Vitro." PhD diss., The Ohio State University, 2015.
[21] Getachew, Halle B., Rebecca M. Dahl, Benjamin A. Lopman, and Umesh D. Parashar. "Rotavirus vaccines and health care utilization for diarrhea in US children, 2001 to 2015." The Pediatric infectious disease journal. Vol 37, Issue 9,pp. 943, 2018.
[22] Burnett, Eleanor, Jacqueline E. Tate, Carl D. Kirkwood, E. Anthony S. Nelson, Mathuram Santosham, A. Duncan Steele, and Umesh D. Parashar. "Estimated impact of rotavirus vaccine on hospitalizations and deaths from rotavirus diarrhea among children< 5 in Asia." Expert review of vaccines. Vol 17, Issue 5,pp.453-460, 2018.
[23] Karafillakis, Emilie, Sondus Hassounah, and Christina Atchison. "Effectiveness and impact of rotavirus vaccines in Europe, 2006–2014." Vaccine. Vol 33, Issue 18,pp.2097, 2015.
[24] Martella, V., Krisztián Bányai, Jelle Matthijnssens, Canio Buonavoglia, and Max Ciarlet. "Zoonotic aspects of rotaviruses." Veterinary microbiology. Vol 140, Issue 3-4, 2010.
[25] Abdulazeez, Atheer Abdulrazzaq, and Modher Nagem Abed. "Genotyping of rotavirus in neonatal calves with acute gastroenteritis in Iraq." Advances in Microbiology. Vol 7, Issue 12, pp. 863-870, 2017.
[26] Abd-Al Fattah, Suha Ali, Mohamed Abdullah Hamad, and Muhammad Qais AL-Ani. "Prevalence and Molecular Detection of Rotavirus in Children in Ramadi City-Iraq." Medico Legal Update . Vol 20, Issue 4, pp. 20-96, 2020.
[27] Beards, Graham. "Rotavirus." WikiJournal of Medicine . Vol 4, Issue 1, pp. 1-12, 2017.
[28] Abdul-Ridha, Adnan N., Abdul-Razak Sh Hasan, and Ansam D. Salman. "A comparison study between Enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay and rapid latex agglutination test for the diagnosis of Rotavirus in human." Diyala Journal for Pure sciences. Vol 11, Issue 1, pp. 82-95, 2015.
[29] Hameed, Ali R., Bakri Y. Mohamed, Adam D. Abakar, and Karim S. Ali. "Identification of rotavirus GP genotypes among Iraqi children in Diyala province by multiplex semi-nested RT-PCR."
[30] Morelli, Marco, Kristen M. Ogden, and John T. Patton. "Silencing the alarms: innate immune antagonism by rotavirus NSP1 and VP3." Virology. Vol 479, pp. 75-84, 2015.
[31] Faleye, T. O. C., U. E. George, C. Simsek, O. A. Arowolo, O. M. Adewumi, J. Matthijnssens, and J. A. Adeniji. "Reference Human Rotavirus A Genome Sequence from a Previously Vaccinated Child with Diarrhea in Nigeria." Microbiology resource announcements .Vol 9, Issue 5, pp. e01252-19, 2020.
[32] Rodríguez, Javier M., and Daniel Luque. "Structural insights into rotavirus entry." In Physical Virology,Springer. Vol 4, Issue 1, pp. 35-68, 2019.
[33] Rojas, Miguel, Helver G. Dias, Jorge Luiz S. Gonçalves, Alberto Manchego, Raul Rosadio, Danilo Pezo, and Norma Santos. "Genetic diversity and zoonotic potential of rotavirus A strains in the southern Andean highlands, Peru." Transboundary and emerging diseases. Vol 66, Issue 4, pp. 1718-1726, 2019.
[34] Carossino, Mariano, Maria E. Barrandeguy, Yanqiu Li, Viviana Parreño, Jennifer Janes, Alan T. Loynachan, and Udeni BR Balasuriya. "Detection, molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of G3P [12] and G14P [12] equine rotavirus strains co-circulating in central Kentucky." Virus research 255 (2018): 39-54. Vol 255, pp. 39-54, 2018.
[35] Senthilkumar, R. "A Study on Rotavirus Gastroenteritis in Children Under Five Years in Coimbatore." PhD diss., Coimbatore Medical College, Coimbatore, 2017.
[36] Carossino, Mariano, Maria E. Barrandeguy, Yanqiu Li, Viviana Parreño, Jennifer Janes, Alan T. Loynachan, and Udeni BR Balasuriya. "Detection, molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of G3P [12] and G14P [12] equine rotavirus strains co-circulating in central Kentucky." Virus research . Vol 255, pp. 39-54, 2018.
[37] Hameed, Ali R., Bakri Y. Mohamed, Adam D. Abakar, and Karim S. Ali. "Prevalence of Rotavirus among Iraqi Children with Diarrhea in Diyala Province." Prevalence . Vol 8, Issue 2, pp. 20-23, 2021.
[38] Chen, Shou-Chien, Lia-Beng Tan, Li-Min Huang, and Kow-Tong Chen. "Rotavirus infection and the current status of rotavirus vaccines." Journal of the Formosan Medical Association. Vol 111, pp. 189-193, 2012.
[39] Xiang, Wenqing, Zhaoyang Peng, Jialu Xu, Hongqiang Shen, and Wei Li. "Evaluation of a commercial latex agglutination test for detecting rotavirus A and human adenovirus in children`s stool specimens." Journal of clinical laboratory analysis. Vol 34, Issue 5, pp.e32308, 2020.
[40] Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Rotavirus. Pink Book. 2014.
[41] Medici, Maria Cristina, Laura Anna Abelli, Paola Guerra, Icilio Dodi, Giuseppe Dettori, and Carlo Chezzi. "Case report: detection of rotavirus RNA in the cerebrospinal fluid of a child with rotavirus gastroenteritis and meningism." Journal of medical virology . Vol 83, Issue 9, pp. 1637-1630, 2011.
[42] Sugata, Ken, Koki Taniguchi, Akiko Yui, Fumi Miyake, Sadao Suga, Yoshizo Asano, Masahiro Ohashi et al. "Analysis of rotavirus antigenemia and extraintestinal manifestations in children with rotavirus gastroenteritis." Pediatrics. Vol 122, Issue 2, pp. 392-397, 2008.
[43] Huppertz, Hans-Iko, Nuran Salman, and Carlo Giaquinto. "Risk factors for severe rotavirus gastroenteritis." The Pediatric infectious disease journa. Vol 27, Issue 1, pp. S11-S19, 2008.
[44] Odegard, Amy, Manidipa Banerjee, and John E. Johnson. "Flock house virus: a model system for understanding non-enveloped virus entry and membrane penetration." Cell Entry by Non-Enveloped Viruses, 2017.
[45] Arnold, Michelle M. "The rotavirus interferon antagonist NSP1: many targets, many questions." Journal of virology. Vol 90, Issue 11, pp. 5212-5215, 2016.
[46] Silvestri, Lynn S., Zenobia F. Taraporewala, and John T. Patton. "Rotavirus replication: plus-sense templates for double-stranded RNA synthesis are made in viroplasms." Journal of virology. Vol 78, Issue 14, pp. 7763-7774, 2004.
[47] Patton, John T., Rodrigo Vasquez-Del Carpio, and Eugenio Spencer. "Replication and transcription of the rotavirus genome." Current pharmaceutical design. Vol 10, Issue 30, pp. 3769-3777, 2004.
[48] Ruiz, Marie Christine, Theresa Leon, Yuleima Diaz, and Fabian Michelangeli. "Molecular biology of rotavirus entry and replication." TheScientificWorldJOURNAL.Vol 9,pp.1476-1497, 2009.
[49] Moyo, Sabrina John. "Viral diarrhoea in children under two years of age in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Clinical and molecular epidemiology." 2014.
[50] Podewils, Laura Jean, Eric D. Mintz, James P. Nataro, and Umesh D. Parashar. "Acute, infectious diarrhea among children in developing countries." In Seminars in pediatric infectious diseases, Vol 15, Issue 3, pp. 155, 2004.
[51] Riedel, Stefan, Stephen A. Morse, Timothy A. Mietzner, and Steve Miller. Jawetz Melnick & Adelbergs Medical Microbiology 28 E. McGraw Hill Professional, 2019.
[52] Stene, Lars C., Margo C. Honeyman, Edward J. Hoffenberg, Joel E. Haas, Ronald J. Sokol, Lisa Emery, Iman Taki et al. "Rotavirus infection frequency and risk of celiac disease autoimmunity in early childhood: a longitudinal study." Official journal of the American College of Gastroenterology. Vol 101, Issue 10, pp. 2333-2340, 2006.
[53] Ruggeri, Franco Maria, Roberto Delogu, Tatiana Petouchoff, Olga Tcheremenskaia, Simona De Petris, Lucia Fiore, and RotaNet?Italy Study Group. "Molecular characterization of rotavirus strains from children with diarrhea in Italy, 2007–2009." Journal of medical virology. Vol 83, Issue 9, pp. 1657-1668, 2011.
[54] AL-Shuwaikh, Arwa M., Israa AJ Ibrahim, and Rana M. Al-Shwaikh. "Detection of E. coli and rotavirus in diarrhea among children under five years old." Iraqi journal of biotechnology. Vol 14, Issue 1, 2015.
[55] Qadir, Kaify Jamil. "Healthcare providers’ knowledge on rotavirus vaccine at selected primary? healthcare centers in Erbil City." Zanco Journal of Medical Sciences (Zanco J Med Sci). Vol 20, Issue 2, pp. 1204-1309, 2016.
[56] Justino, Maria Cleonice A., Patrícia Brasil, Erika Abreu, Yllen Miranda, Joana D’Arc P. Mascarenhas, Sylvia FS Guerra, and Alexandre C. Linhares. "Clinical severity and rotavirus vaccination among children hospitalized for acute gastroenteritis in Belém, northern Brazil." Journal of tropical pediatrics. Vol 62, Issue 4, pp. 276-281, 2016.
[57] Istrate, Claudia, Sumit Sharma, Johan Nordgren, Sandra Videira e Castro, Ângela Lopes, Joao Piedade, Ahmed Zaky et al. "High rate of detection of G8P [6] rotavirus in children with acute gastroenteritis in Sao Tome and Principe." Archives of virology. Vol 160, Issue 2, pp. 423-428, 2015.
[58] Samdan, Altanchimeg, Sarangua Ganbold, Oyunchimeg Guntev, Solongo Orosoo, Narmandakh Javzandorj, Amar Gongor, Altansukh Enkhtuvshin et al. "Hospital-based surveillance for rotavirus diarrhea in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, April 2009 through March." Vaccine.Vol 36, Issue. 51, pp.7883-7887, 2018
[59] Jindal, Naresh, Yogesh Chander, Devi P. Patnayak, Sunil K. Mor, Andre F. Ziegler, and Sagar M. Goyal. "A multiplex RT-PCR for the detection of astrovirus, rotavirus, and reovirus in turkeys." Avian Diseases. Vol 56, Issue 3, pp. 592-596, 2012.
[60] Walker, Christa L. Fischer, Igor Rudan, Li Liu, Harish Nair, Evropi Theodoratou, Zulfiqar A. Bhutta, Katherine L. O`Brien, Harry Campbell, and Robert E. Black. "Global burden of childhood pneumonia and diarrhoea". Vol 381, Issue 9875, pp. 1405-1416, 2013.
[61] Hegazi, Moustafa Abdelaal, Mohamed Hesham Sayed, Haifa Hasan Sindi, Osama Elsayed Bekhit, Basem Salama El-Deek, Faisal M. Yaqoub Alshoudri, and Amroo Khaled Noorelahi. "Is rotavirus still a major cause for diarrheal illness in hospitalized pediatric patients after rotavirus vaccine introduction in the Saudi national immunization program?." Medicine. Vol 96, Issue 15, 2017.
[62] Hasan, Abdul-Razak SH, Abbas A. Al-Duliami, Mehdi SH AL-Zuheiry, and Abdul-Kadir Y. Al-Azawi. "The prevalence of rotavirus infection in Baquba-Diyala province." Diyala Journal For Pure Science. Vol 6, Issue 3, 2010.
[63] Giri, Sidhartha, R. Priya Hemavathy, Rajesh Arumugam, Jeevan B. Sherchand, Hlaing Myat Thu, Geethani Galagoda, Theingi Win Myat et al. "Molecular epidemiology of rotaviruses in the south-east Asian region from 2009 to 2015." Vaccine. Vol 36, Issue 51, pp. 7851-7855, 2012.
[64] Karampatsas, Konstantinos, Leanne Osborne, May-Li Seah, Cheuk YW Tong, and Andrew J. Prendergast. "Clinical characteristics and complications of rotavirus gastroenteritis in children in east London: A retrospective case-control study." PloS one. Vol 13, Issue 3, pp. e0193009, 2012.
[65] Laiz?ne, Gunta, Anda ??v?te, Ilze Grope, Liene Smane, Edv?ns Miklaševics, Laura Ozoli?a, and Dace Gardovska. "Clinical characterisation of rota virus infection associated with most commonly circulating genotypes in children hospitalised in Children’s University Hospital: a Cross-Sectional Study in Latvia." In Proceedings of the Latvian Academy of Sciences.Vol 73, Issue 4, pp. 312-316, 2012.
[66] Patel, Manish, Cristina Pedreira, Lucia Helena De Oliveira, Jacqueline Tate, Maribel Orozco, Juan Mercado, Alcides Gonzalez et al. "Association between pentavalent rotavirus vaccine and severe rotavirus diarrhea among children in Nicaragua". Vol 301, Issue 21, pp. 2243-2251, 2009.
[67] Mohammed AA, Aminu M, Ado SA, Jatau ED, Esona MD. Prevalence of rotavirus among children under five years of age with diarrhea in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Niger J Paediatr.Vol 43, Issue 4, pp. 264, 2016.
[68] Dratwa-Cha?upnik, A., Agnieszka Herosimczyk, A. Lepczy?ski, and Wieslaw F. Skrzypczak. "Calves with diarrhea and a water-electrolyte balance." Medycyna Weterynaryjna. Vol 68, Issue 1, pp. 5-8, 2012.
[69] Senthilkumar, R. "A Study on Rotavirus Gastroenteritis in Children Under Five Years in Coimbatore." PhD diss., Coimbatore Medical College, Coimbatore, 2017.
[70] Shao, Lulu. "Rotavirus Pathogenesis, Innate Immunity and Their Immune Modulation by Probiotics in a Piglet Model and in Vitro." PhD diss., The Ohio State University, 2015.
[71] CHOUDHARY, M., BK CHOUDHARY, RC GHOSH, DK GIRI, and S. NETTY. "PATHOBIOLOGY OF ROTAVIRAL DIARRHOEA IN CALVES: A POTENT ZOONOTIC THREAT: A REVIEW." Journal of Cell and Tissue Research . Vol 17, Issue 2, pp. 6151-6154, 2017.
[72] Hamza, Mohammed S. "The effect of age, gender, type of feeding and receiving a treatment on the distribution of Enterovirus infection among children in Al-Diwaniyah city, Iraq." (2020).
[73] Muhsin, Salwa S., and Marwah M. Nasri. "Enterpathogen Associated With Diarrheal Cases in Children Aged (> 1-15) Years in Baghdad." Ibn AL-Haitham Journal For Pure and Applied Science. Vol 28, Issue 3, pp. 277-285, 2017.
[74] Ayyed, Muneam A., Mohsen F. Al-Dulaimi, Rafi K. Al-Ani, and Saleem OG Al-Mawla. "Incidence of Rota Virus Gastroenteritis among Vaccinated and Non-vaccinated Children Less Than Two Years Old in Ramadi City, Iraq." Al-Anbar Medical Journal . Vol 16, Issue 1, 2020.
[75] Abdulridha, Ali Saleem. "Study the effects of age and gender of children on Rotavirus infection in Baghdad, Iraq." Research Journal of Pharmaceutical Biological and Chemichal Sciences. Vol 7, Issue 4, pp. 700-704, 2016.
[76] Soltan, Mohamed A., Yun-Long Tsai, Pei-Yu A. Lee, Chuan-Fu Tsai, Hsiao-Fen G. Chang, Hwa-Tang T. Wang, and Rebecca P. Wilkes. "Comparison of electron microscopy, ELISA, real time RT-PCR and insulated isothermal RT-PCR for the detection of Rotavirus group A (RVA) in feces of different animal species." Journal of virological methods. Vol 235, pp. 99-104, 2016.
[77] Nisa TU. ROTAVIRUS GENOTYPING: A PROMISING DIAGNOSTIC TOOL OF RESEARCH FOR PEDIATRIC GASTROENTERITIS. PAKISTAN J Med Dent. Vol 8, Issue 3, pp. 83-86, 2019.
[78] Sarker, Shafiqul A., Martin Jäkel, Shamima Sultana, Nur H. Alam, Pradip K. Bardhan, Mohammod J. Chisti, Mohammed A. Salam, Winfried Theis, Lennart Hammarström, and Leon GJ Frenken. "Anti-rotavirus protein reduces stool output in infants with diarrhea: a randomized placebo-controlled trial." Gastroenterology. Vol 145, Issue 4, pp. 740-748, 2013.
[79] Fumian, Tulio M., José Paulo G. Leite, Mônica S. Rocha, Juliana SR de Andrade, Julia M. Fioretti, Rosane MS de Assis, Matheus RS Assis, Alexandre M. Fialho, and Marize P. Miagostovich. "Performance of a one-step quantitative duplex RT-PCR for detection of rotavirus A and noroviruses GII during two periods of high viral circulation." Journal of virological methods. Vol 224, pp. 123-129, 2016.
[80] Tate, Jacqueline E., Anthony H. Burton, Cynthia Boschi-Pinto, Umesh D. Parashar, World Health Organization–Coordinated Global Rotavirus Surveillance Network, Mary Agocs, Fatima Serhan et al. "Global, regional, and national estimates of rotavirus mortality in children< 5 years of age, 2000–2013." Clinical Infectious Diseases. Vol 62, Issue 2, pp. S96-S105, 2016.
[81] Araki, Kaoru, Megumi Hara, Takeshi Tsugawa, Chisato Shimanoe, Yuichiro Nishida, Muneaki Matsuo, and Keitaro Tanaka. "Effectiveness of monovalent and pentavalent rotavirus vaccines in Japanese children." Vaccine. Vol 36, Issue 34, pp. 5187-6193, 2018.
[82] Pecenka, Clint, Frederic Debellut, Naor Bar-Zeev, Palwasha Anwari, Justice Nonvignon, Md Shamsuzzaman, and Andrew Clark. "Re-evaluating the cost and cost-effectiveness of rotavirus vaccination in Bangladesh, Ghana, and Malawi: A comparison of three rotavirus vaccines." Vaccine. Vol 36, Issue 49, pp. 7472-7478, 2018.
[83] Cann, Alan J. Principles of molecular virology (standard edition). Academic press, 2001.