Volume-10 , Issue-2 , Apr 2023, ISSN 2455-3174 (Online) Go Back

• Open Access   Article

  Investigation of clay minerals (Kaolinite and halloysite) as a green leather tanning agent.

  Nelly Maina, Douglas Onyancha, Paul Sang

  Research Paper | Journal-Paper (IJSRCS)

  Vol.10 , Issue.2 , pp.1-7, Apr-2023

  Abstract

  Full-Text HTML

  References

  Citation

  Abstract
  Tanning involves the stabilization of hides and skins with the use of organic or inorganic chemicals. Inorganic tannings include chromium tannage, alum tannage, zirconium tannage, etc. Among these, chrome tannage is the most preferred tanning method due to the superior properties it impacts on leather. Despite its popularity, there has been a rising concern about the environmental impact brought about by chromium tanning and as a result, researchers have embarked on a search for a more suitable alternative to chromium tanning. This study explored the use of clay as an economical and eco-friendly tanning agent. XRD and XRF analysis was done to identify the type of clay obtained from Murang’a quarry, Kabuta region in Kenya, and determine its physical and chemical composition. The finding indicated that the two clays were kaolinite and halloysite. Their XRD peaks were observed at a basal spacing of 7.14º and 7.2º respectively with SiO? and Al?O? being the major elements with percentages ranging between 50%-40% and 40%-25% respectively. The clay samples were then modified using concentrated formic acid and used to tan goat skin. The physical properties of leathers obtained were analysed using IUP standard method which included the tensile strength and elongation at break, shrinkage temperature, tear strength, grain crack, and grain burst tests. From the results, both leathers tanned with kaolinite and halloysite had attained the minimum recommended values for all the tests. Moreover, leather tanned using halloysite had better physical properties compared to that tanned using kaolinite. From this study, clay can be used as an alternative tanning agent to chromium.

  Key-Words / Index Term
  X-ray diffractometer (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), kaolinite, halloysite.

  References
  [1] H. Li, H. L. Chen, R. Luo, B. L. Liu, and L. Z. Gao, "The interaction between collagen and an aluminum tanning agent," Macromolecular Bioscience, vol. 3, no. 7, pp. 344-346, 2003.
  [2] A. Cucos, P. Budrugeac, S. Mitrea, and C. Hajdu, "The influence of sodium chloride on the melting temperature of collagen crystalline region in parchments," Journal of thermal analysis and calorimetry, vol. 111, no. 1, pp. 467-473, 2013.
  [3] E. Onem, A. Yorgancioglu, H. A. Karavana, and O. Yilmaz, "Comparison of different tanning agents on the stabilization of collagen via differential scanning calorimetry," Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, vol. 129, no. 1, pp. 615-622, 2017.
  [4] A. D. Covington, "Modern tanning chemistry," Chemical society reviews, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 111-126, 1997.
  [5] A. D. Covington, Tanning chemistry: the science of leather. Royal Society of Chemistry. 2009.
  [6] R. K. Das, A. Mizan, F. T. Zohra, S. Ahmed, K. S. Ahmed, and H. Hossain, "Extraction of a novel tanning agent from indigenous plant bark and its application in leather processing," Journal of Leather Science and Engineering, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 1-15, 2022.
  [7] P. C. Pinto, G. Sousa, F. Crispim, A. J. Silvestre, and C. P. Neto, "Eucalyptus globulus bark as source of tannin extracts for application in leather industry," ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, vol. 1, no. 8, pp. 950-955, 2013.
  [8] E. Onem, G. Gulumser, S. Akay, and O. Yesil-Celiktas, "Optimization of tannin isolation from acorn and application in leather processing," Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 53, pp. 16-22, 2014.
  [9] V. J. Sundar and C. Muralidharan, "An environmentally friendly mineral-free tanning of animal skins–Sustainable approach with plant resources," Environmental Processes, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 255-270, 2020.
  [10] S. Imer and T. Varnali, "Modeling chromium sulfate complexes in relation to chromium tannage in leather technology: a computational study," Applied organometallic chemistry, vol. 14, no. 10, pp. 660-669, 2000.
  [11] J. Shi, H. Chen, J. M. Arocena, T. Whitcombe, R. W. Thring, and J. N. Memiaghe, "Elemental sulfur amendment decreases bio-available Cr-VI in soils impacted by leather tanneries," Environmental Pollution, vol. 212, pp. 57-64, 2016.
  [12] N. N. Fathima, M. Balaraman, J. R. Rao, and B. U. Nair, "Effect of zirconium (IV) complexes on the thermal and enzymatic stability of type I collagen," Journal of inorganic biochemistry, vol. 95, no. 1, pp. 47-54, 2003.
  [13] S. Shuangxi, S. Kaiqi, L. Ya, L. Jiang, and M. Chun`an, "Mechanism of chrome-free tanning with tetra-hydroxymethyl phosphonium chloride," Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 446-450, 2008.
  [14] L. Ya, S. Zhihua, S. Shuangxi, and S. Kaiqi, "Reaction mechanism of tetrakis hydroxymethyl phosphonium with collagen protein," Journal of the Society of Leather Technologists and Chemists, vol. 90, no. 5, pp. 214-216, 2006.
  [15] K. Murali, K. Sambath, and S. Mohammed Hashir, "A review on clay and its engineering significance," International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 8-11, 2018.
  [16] F. Bergaya and G. Lagaly, "General introduction: clays, clay minerals, and clay science," Developments in clay science, vol. 1, pp. 1-18, 2006.
  [17] K. C. M. Xavier et al., "Effects of acid treatment on the clay palygorskite: XRD, surface area, morphological and chemical composition," Materials Research, vol. 17, pp. 3-08, 2014.
  [18] P. Ciambelli et al., "Zeolite-chrome tanning: From laboratory to pilot scale," in Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis, vol. 155: Elsevier, 2005, pp. 189-198.
  [19] C. R. China et al., "Preparation of aluminium sulphate from kaolin and its performance in combination tanning," SN Applied Sciences, vol. 1, no. 8, p. 920, 2019.
  [20] J. Shi, C. Wang, L. Hu, Y. Xiao, and W. Lin, "Novel wet-white tanning approach based on laponite clay nanoparticles for reduced formaldehyde release and improved physical performances," ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 1195-1201, 2018.
  [21] M. Marukhlenko, O. Mokrousova, and O. Okhmat, "New tanning agent with montmorillonite for leather manufacturing," in Solid State Phenomena, 2017, vol. 267: Trans Tech Publ, pp. 52-57,
  [22] W. D. Kanuri, A. Onyuka, and R. Tanui, "An investigation on the properties of rabbit leather from different tannages," Int. J. Sci. Res. Publ, vol. 9, pp. 12-17, 2019.
  [23] P. Yuan et al., "Functionalization of halloysite clay nanotubes by grafting with ?-aminopropyltriethoxysilane," The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, vol. 112, no. 40, pp. 15742-15751, 2008.
  [24] H. Wu, J. Zhang, and Z. Zhou, "Effect of heat treatment on structure, morphology and surface properties of halloysite," in IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 2019, vol. 678, no. 1: IOP Publishing, p. 012111,
  [25] K. H. Tan, Principles of soil chemistry. CRC press. 2010.
  [26] E. Joussein, S. Petit, J. Churchman, B. Theng, D. Righi, and B. Delvaux, "Halloysite clay minerals—a review," Clay minerals, vol. 40, no. 4, pp. 383-426, 2005.
  [27] D. Tan, P. Yuan, F. Annabi-Bergaya, F. Dong, D. Liu, and H. He, "A comparative study of tubular halloysite and platy kaolinite as carriers for the loading and release of the herbicide amitrole," Applied Clay Science, vol. 114, pp. 190-196, 2015.
  [28] B. B. Lázaro, "Halloysite and kaolinite: two clay minerals with geological and technological importance," Revista de la Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas, Químicas y Naturales de Zaragoza, no. 70, pp. 7-38, 2015.
  [29] O. Ombaka, "Characterization and classification of clay minerals for potential applications in Rugi Ward, Kenya," African Journal of environmental science and Technology, vol. 10, no. 11, pp. 415-431, 2016.
  [30] A. K. Panda, B. G. Mishra, D. K. Mishra, and R. K. Singh, "Effect of sulphuric acid treatment on the physico-chemical characteristics of kaolin clay," Colloids and surfaces A: Physicochemical and engineering aspects, vol. 363, no. 1-3, pp. 98-104, 2010.
  [31] S. Yahaya, S. S. Jikan, N. A. Badarulzaman, and A. D. Adamu, "Effects of acid treatment on the SEM-EDX characteristics of kaolin clay," Traektoriâ Nauki= Path of Science, vol. 3, no. 9, pp. 4001-4005, 2017.
  [32] B. B. BASF, Pocket Book for the Leather Technologist, 4 ed. BASF publisher, BASF Aktiengesellschaft. 2007.
  [33] A. Kuria et al., "Quality evaluation of leathers produced by selected vegetable tanning materials from Laikipia County, Kenya," IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 13-17, 2016.
  [34] M. M. Mutlu, N. Ork, B. Kaya, and S. Gunesel, "Determination and Mapping of Tear Load, Tensile Strength and Extension Values on Overall Area of Goatskin Leathers," in International Conference on Advanced Materials and Systems (ICAMS), 2016: The National Research & Development Institute for Textiles and Leather-INCDTP, pp. 117-122,
  [35] B. M. Haines and J. R. Barlow, "The anatomy of leather," Journal of Materials Science, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 525-538, 1975/03/01 1975, doi: 10.1007/BF00543698.
  [36] E. A. Hassan and M. T. Ibrahim, "Optimisation of chrome retanning process to the garad (Acacia nilotica) tanned leather," 2014.
  [37] A. Yorgancioglu, E. Onem, O. Yilmaz, and H. A. Karavana, "Interactions Between Collagen and Alternative Leather Tanning Systems to Chromium Salts by Comparative Thermal Analysis Methods: Thermal stabilisation of collagen by tanning process," Johnson Matthey Technology Review, vol. 66, no. 2, pp. 215-226, 2022.
  [38] D. Chakraborty, A. H. Quadery, and M. A. K. Azad, "Studies on the tanning with glutaraldehyde as an alternative to traditional chrome tanning system for the production of chrome free leather," Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 553-558, 2008.

  Citation
  Nelly Maina, Douglas Onyancha, Paul Sang, "Investigation of clay minerals (Kaolinite and halloysite) as a green leather tanning agent.," International Journal of Scientific Research in Chemical Sciences, Vol.10, Issue.2, pp.1-7, 2023

• Open Access   Article

  Extraction And Characterization of Natural Dye from Beetroot Peels (Beta vulgaris) For Application in Leather Dyeing

  Louret Atsenga Andalo, Paul K. M. Sang, Rose Tanui

  Research Paper | Journal-Paper (IJSRCS)

  Vol.10 , Issue.2 , pp.8-14, Apr-2023

  Abstract

  Full-Text HTML

  References

  Citation

  Abstract
  Synthetic dyes are known to be toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic and non-biodegradable. This has led to increased research by scientists across the globe on natural dyes as viable alternatives. This study has utilized extraction of natural dye using a simple aqueous method which is an economical way of obtaining the dye for application in leather dyeing while utilizing the agricultural waste hence value addition. The dye extract`s functional groups were identified using FT-IR analysis, while the concentration of betalain in the dye extract was determined by UV-VIS analysis. Additionally, various tests were conducted to investigate how changes in temperature and pH affect the dye`s stability. Characteristic bands were observed in the FT-IR spectra, specifically at 3291.89 for OH stretching, 2884.99 and 2829.06 for C-H stretching, 1634.38 for C=O stretching, 1565.92 for N-H bend, and 1319.07 for the amine bond. The UV-VIS analysis showed a characteristic peak at 535 nm indicating the presence of the red- violet betacyanin which was responsible for the red-violet colour of the extract observed with the maximum absorbance of 0.3. The findings of this investigation indicated that the dye extract obtained from beetroot peels has potential for commercial use in the dyeing of leather.

  Key-Words / Index Term
  Betalain, beetroot peels, FT-IR, UV-VIS, betacyanin, betaxanthin

  References
  [1] G. Nagendrappa, "Sir William Henry Perkin: the man and his ‘mauve’," Resonance, vol. 15, no. 9, pp. 779-793, 2010.
  [2] K. Prabhu and A. S. Bhute, "Plant based natural dyes and mordants: A Review," J. Nat. Prod. Plant Resour, vol. 2, no. 6, pp. 649-664, 2012.
  [3] R. Christie, Colour chemistry. Royal society of chemistry, 2014.
  [4] L. Nambela, L. V. Haule, and Q. Mgani, "A review on source, chemistry, green synthesis and application of textile colorants," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 246, p. 119036, 2020.
  [5] H.-G. Franck and J. W. Stadelhofer, Industrial aromatic chemistry: raw materials· processes· products. Springer Science & Business Media, 2012.
  [6] R. Gupta, A. Kushwaha, D. Dave, and N. R. Mahanta, "Waste management in fashion and textile industry: Recent advances and trends, life-cycle assessment, and circular economy," Emerging Trends to Approaching Zero Waste, pp. 215-242, 2022.
  [7] R. T. Kapoor, M. Danish, R. S. Singh, M. Rafatullah, and A. K. HPS, "Exploiting microbial biomass in treating azo dyes contaminated wastewater: Mechanism of degradation and factors affecting microbial efficiency," Journal of Water Process Engineering, vol. 43, p. 102255, 2021.
  [8] A. Kumar, A. K. Singh, and R. Chandra, "Recent advances in physicochemical and biological approaches for degradation and detoxification of industrial wastewater," Emerging treatment technologies for waste management, pp. 1-28, 2021.
  [9] R. Kishor et al., "Ecotoxicological and health concerns of persistent coloring pollutants of textile industry wastewater and treatment approaches for environmental safety," Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, vol. 9, no. 2, p. 105012, 2021.
  [10] S. Saxena and A. S. M. Raja, "Natural Dyes: Sources, Chemistry, Application and Sustainability Issues," in Roadmap to Sustainable Textiles and Clothing, (Textile Science and Clothing Technology, pp. 37-80, 2014,.
  [11] M. Shahid and F. Mohammad, "Perspectives for natural product based agents derived from industrial plants in textile applications–a review," Journal of cleaner production, vol. 57, pp. 2-18, 2013.
  [12] S. Aggarwal, "Indian dye yielding plants: Efforts and opportunities," in Natural Resources Forum, 2021, vol. 45, no. 1: Wiley Online Library, pp. 63-86.
  [13] B. Neelwarne and S. B. Halagur, "Red beet: an overview," Red Beet Biotechnology, pp. 1-43, 2013.
  [14] P. Esquivel, "Betalains," in Handbook on natural pigments in food and beverages: Elsevier, pp. 81-99, 2016 .
  [15] T. Esatbeyoglu, A. E. Wagner, V. B. Schini?Kerth, and G. Rimbach, "Betanin—A food colorant with biological activity," Molecular nutrition & food research, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 36-47, 2015.
  [16] D. Strack, T. Vogt, and W. Schliemann, "Recent advances in betalain research," Phytochemistry, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 247-269, 2003.
  [17] N. Ali and R. El-Mohamedy, "Eco-friendly and protective natural dye from red prickly pear (Opuntia Lasiacantha Pfeiffer) plant," Journal of Saudi chemical society, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 257-261, 2011.
  [18] Y. Fu, J. Shi, S.-Y. Xie, T.-Y. Zhang, O. P. Soladoye, and R. E. Aluko, "Red beetroot betalains: Perspectives on extraction, processing, and potential health benefits," Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 68, no. 42, pp. 11595-11611, 2020.
  [19] R. Mohan, N. Geetha, D. H. Jennifer, and V. Sivakumar, "Studies on natural dye (Pelargonidin) extraction from onion peel and application in dyeing of leather," International Journal of Recent Engineering Science, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 14-22, 2020.
  [20] A. Inayat, S. Khan, A. Waheed, and F. Deeba, "Applications of eco friendly natural dyes on leather using different modrants," Proc. Pakistan Acad. Sci, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 131-135, 2010.
  [21] V. Sivakumar, J. L. Anna, J. Vijayeeswarri, and G. Swaminathan, "Ultrasound assisted enhancement in natural dye extraction from beetroot for industrial applications and natural dyeing of leather," Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 782-789, 2009.
  [22] P. Velmurugan, J. Shim, S.-K. Seo, and B.-T. Oh, "Extraction of natural dye from Coreopsis tinctoria flower petals for leather dyeing? An eco-friendly approach," Fibers and Polymers, vol. 17, pp. 1875-1883, 2016.
  [23] C. Kurinjimalar, N. Usharani, B. Kanimozhi, G. C. Jayakumar, and S. V. Kanth, "Extraction and optimization of natural colorant from Garcinia mangostana Linn peels for leather dyeing," Cleaner Engineering and Technology, vol. 7, p. 100423, 2022.
  [24] A. T. Selvi, R. Aravindhan, B. Madhan, and J. R. Rao, "Studies on the application of natural dye extract from Bixa orellana seeds for dyeing and finishing of leather," Industrial crops and products, vol. 43, pp. 84-86, 2013.
  [25] A. K. DEB, M. A. A. SHAIKH, M. Z. SULTAN, and M. I. H. RAFI, "Application of lac dye in shoe upper leather dyeing," Revista de Pielarie Incaltaminte, vol. 17, no. 2, p. 97, 2017.
  [26] V. Popescu et al., "Green chemistry in the extraction of natural dyes from colored food waste, for dyeing protein textile materials," Polymers, vol. 13, no. 22, p. 3867, 2021.
  [27] M. Zin, E. Márki, and S. Bánvölgyi, "Conventional extraction of betalain compounds from beetroot peels with aqueous ethanol solvent," Acta Alimentaria, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 163-169, 2020.
  [28] A. Yaqub, N. Chaudhary, R. A. A. Bhatti, Z. Iqbal, and M. Habib-ul-Haq, "Green extraction and dyeing of silk from Beta vulgaris peel dye with ecofriendly acid mordants," J. Bio. Env. Sci, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 308-321, 2018.
  [29] E. ONEM, G. GULUMSER, and B. OCAK, "Evaluation of Natural Dyeing of Leather with Rubia tinctorum Extract," Research note, pp. 81-87, 2011, doi: 10.5053/ekoloji.2011.8011.
  [30] R. Castellar, J. M. Obón, M. Alacid, and J. A. Fernández-López, "Color properties and stability of betacyanins from Opuntia fruits," Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 51, no. 9, pp. 2772-2776, 2003.
  [31] C.-P. S. Hsu, "Infrared spectroscopy," Handbook of instrumental techniques for analytical chemistry, vol. 249, 1997.
  [32] I. Sadowska-Bartosz and G. Bartosz, "Biological properties and applications of betalains," Molecules, vol. 26, no. 9, p. 2520, 2021.
  [33] T. E. Moussa-Ayoub, S. K. El-Samahy, S. Rohn, and L. W. Kroh, "Flavonols, betacyanins content and antioxidant activity of cactus Opuntia macrorhiza fruits," Food Research International, vol. 44, no. 7, pp. 2169-2174, 2011.
  [34] C. Yao, F. Yongming, G. Jianmin, and L. Houkun, "Coloring characteristics of in situ lignin during heat treatment," Wood Science and Technology, vol. 46, pp. 33-40, 2012.
  [35] K. M. Herbach, F. C. Stintzing, and R. Carle, "Betalain stability and degradation—structural and chromatic aspects," Journal of food science, vol. 71, no. 4, pp. R41-R50, 2006.
  [36] M. A. Guerrero-Rubio, J. Escribano, F. García-Carmona, and F. Gandía-Herrero, "Light emission in betalains: from fluorescent flowers to biotechnological applications," Trends in Plant Science, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 159-175, 2020.
  [37] S. Gokhale and S. Lele, "Betalain content and antioxidant activity of B eta vulgaris: effect of hot air convective drying and storage," Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 585-590, 2014.
  [38] R. Jackman and J. Smith, "Natural food colorants," Anthocyanins and Betalains (Springer, New York), pp. 244-309, 1996.
  [39] F. Gandía-Herrero, J. Escribano, and F. García-Carmona, "Structural implications on color, fluorescence, and antiradical activity in betalains," Planta, vol. 232, pp. 449-460, 2010.
  [40] G. Calogero, A. Bartolotta, G. Di Marco, A. Di Carlo, and F. Bonaccorso, "Vegetable-based dye-sensitized solar cells," Chemical Society Reviews, vol. 44, no. 10, pp. 3244-3294, 2015.
  [41] A. Houghton, I. Appelhagen, and C. Martin, "Natural blues: Structure meets function in anthocyanins," Plants, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 726, 2021.
  [42] H. M. Azeredo, "Betalains: properties, sources, applications, and stability–a review," International journal of food science & technology, vol. 44, no. 12, pp. 2365-2376, 2009.
  [43] A. Gliszczy?ska-?wig?o, H. Szymusiak, and P. Malinowska, "Betanin, the main pigment of red beet: Molecular origin of its exceptionally high free radical-scavenging activity," Food additives and contaminants, vol. 23, no. 11, pp. 1079-1087, 2006.
  [44] M. Skalicky, J. Kubes, H. Shokoofeh, M. Tahjib-Ul-Arif, P. Vachova, and V. Hejnak, "Betacyanins and betaxanthins in cultivated varieties of Beta vulgaris L. compared to weed beets," Molecules, vol. 25, no. 22, p. 5395, 2020.
  [45] S. Manchali, K. N. C. Murthy, S. Nagaraju, and B. Neelwarne, "Stability of betalain pigments of red beet," Red beet biotechnology: food and pharmaceutical applications, pp. 55-74, 2012.
  [46] Y. Qin, Y. Liu, X. Zhang, and J. Liu, "Development of active and intelligent packaging by incorporating betalains from red pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus) peel into starch/polyvinyl alcohol films," Food Hydrocolloids, vol. 100, p. 105410, 2020.
  [47] R. Kushwaha, V. Kumar, G. Vyas, and J. Kaur, "Optimization of different variable for eco-friendly extraction of betalains and phytochemicals from beetroot pomace," Waste and Biomass Valorization, vol. 9, no. 9, pp. 1485-1494, 2018.
  [48] T. García-Cayuela, A. Gómez-Maqueo, D. Guajardo-Flores, J. Welti-Chanes, and M. P. Cano, "Characterization and quantification of individual betalain and phenolic compounds in Mexican and Spanish prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica L. Mill) tissues: A comparative study," Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, vol. 76, pp. 1-13, 2019.
  [49] S. N. A. Kumar, S. K. Ritesh, G. Sharmila, and C. Muthukumaran, "Extraction optimization and characterization of water soluble red purple pigment from floral bracts of Bougainvillea glabra," Arabian Journal of Chemistry, vol. 10, pp. S2145-S2150, 2017.
  [50] G. A. Molina, A. R. Hernández-Martínez, M. Cortez-Valadez, F. García-Hernández, and M. Estevez, "Effects of tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) on the light and temperature stability of a pigment from Beta vulgaris and its potential food industry applications," Molecules, vol. 19, no. 11, pp. 17985-18002, 2014.
  [51] A. A.-A. Ahmed Moussa, A. H. Gomaa, and R. E. El-Azabawy, "Valorization Beetroot Waste for Eco-Friendly Extraction of Natural Dye for Textile and Food Applications," Egyptian Journal of Chemistry, vol. 65, no. 8, pp. 725-736, 2022.
  [52] V. Rotich, P. Wangila, and J. Cherutoi, "FT-IR Analysis of Beta vulgaris Peels and Pomace Dye Extracts and Surface Analysis of Optimally Dyed-Mordanted Cellulosic Fabrics," Journal of Chemistry, vol. 2022, 2022.
  [53] L. Aztatzi-Rugerio, S. Y. Granados-Balbuena, Y. Zainos-Cuapio, E. Ocaranza-Sánchez, and M. Rojas-López, "Analysis of the degradation of betanin obtained from beetroot using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy," Journal of food science and technology, vol. 56, no. 8, pp. 3677-3686, 2019.
  [54] A. B. D. Nandiyanto, R. Oktiani, and R. Ragadhita, "How to read and interpret FTIR spectroscope of organic material," Indonesian Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 97-118, 2019.

  Citation
  Louret Atsenga Andalo, Paul K. M. Sang, Rose Tanui, "Extraction And Characterization of Natural Dye from Beetroot Peels (Beta vulgaris) For Application in Leather Dyeing," International Journal of Scientific Research in Chemical Sciences, Vol.10, Issue.2, pp.8-14, 2023

• Open Access   Article

  Removal of Chromium (III) from Aqueous Solution Using Limestone Rock Chippings

  Medard Mathew Muna, Benson Ongarora, Paul Tanui

  Research Paper | Journal-Paper (IJSRCS)

  Vol.10 , Issue.2 , pp.15-24, Apr-2023

  Abstract

  Full-Text HTML

  References

  Citation

  Abstract
  Chromium is a valuable element in human health and the manufacturing industry. However, any content greater than 0.1 mg/L in water has detrimental effects on an ecosystem. Its presence poses severe health challenges for all living things and environmental risks. Different approaches have been applied to treat wastewater polluted with chromium before releasing it into the environment. However, the current practices face several challenges including the complexity of their application and high running costs. This study investigated the potential of using limestone as an inexpensive and eco-friendly alternative to removing chromium from wastewater. The locally available and naturally occurring limestone material was collected, cleaned, dried, crushed and graded to the desired sizes. It was then subjected to chemical, SEM and XRF analysis to determine its physical and chemical properties. The graded limestone chippings were used in batch experiments as filtration media to remove chromium from the freshly prepared chromium salt solution. In batch studies, the impacts of the initial chromium ion concentration, contact time, limestone mass dose, and pH of the solution were studied. The ideal parameters for treating 100 mL of chromium solution were found to be a pH of 6.0, contact duration of 90 minutes, a mass dosage of 110 g, and a starting concentration of 100 ppm. The established parameters were applied to tannery effluent sample obtained from a local tannery. Our findings show that limestone has an outstanding filtration ability for chromium heavy metal removal, with maximum removal rates of 98.94% and 92.08% from fresh chromium solution and chrome tannery effluent, respectively. Overall, our results show that using a filtration technology, limestone may be used to efficiently remove heavy metals from wastewater at a low cost and in a sustainable way.

  Key-Words / Index Term
  Limestone, Chromium (III), Filtration, Aqueous solution, Removal efficiency, Recovery, Re-use

  References
  [1] S. B. Onoja, M. O. Udochukwu, and J. F. Malum, "Investigation on Groundwater Quality and Treatment for Fluoride Reduction in Kaltungo, Gombe State, Nigeria," in New Visions in Science and Technology Vol. 3, 2021, pp. 50-66.
  [2] D. Pooja, P. Kumar, P. Singh, and S. Patil, Sensors in water pollutants monitoring: role of material. Springer, 2020.
  [3] Owa, "Water Pollution: Sources, Effects, Control and Management," Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 2013, doi: 10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n8p65.
  [4] C. Ramakrishnaiah, C. Sadashivaiah, and G. Ranganna, "Assessment of water quality index for the groundwater in Tumkur Taluk, Karnataka State, India," E-Journal of chemistry, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 523-530, 2009.
  [5] S. A. K. P.S Kumar, "Experimental Investigation on Reduction of Red Phosphorous using Natural Coagulants," Solid State Technology, vol. 63, no. 5, 2020.
  [6] M. Singh and A. Gupta, "Water pollution-sources, effects and control. Centre for Biodiversity, Department of Botany, Nagaland University, 1–16," ed: Pointer Publishers Jaipur, 2016.
  [7] D. Florescu, R. Ionete, C. Sandru, A. Iordache, and M. Culea, "The influence of pollution monitoring parameters in characterizing the surface water quality from Romania southern area," Rom. Journ. Phys, vol. 56, no. 7-8, pp. 1001-1010, 2011.
  [8] F. N. Chaudhry and M. Malik, "Factors affecting water pollution: a review," J. Ecosyst. Ecography, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 225-231, 2017.
  [9] M. M. Ghangrekar and P. Chatterjee, "Water Pollutants Classification and Its Effects on Environment," in Carbon Nanotubes for Clean Water, (Carbon Nanostructures, 2018, ch. Chapter 2, pp. 11-26.
  [10] Azizullah, M. N. Khattak, P. Richter, and D. P. Hader, "Water pollution in Pakistan and its impact on public health--a review," Environ Int, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 479-97, Feb 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2010.10.007.
  [11] G. Hutton, L. Haller, S. Water, and W. H. Organization, "Evaluation of the costs and benefits of water and sanitation improvements at the global level," World Health Organization, 2004.
  [12] A. N. Aayef et al., "An experimental study for adapting electrocoagulation as a technique for fluoride removal from water," in IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 2021, vol. 1058, no. 1: IOP Publishing, p. 012012.
  [13] D. B. Walker, D. J. Baumgartner, C. P. Gerba, and K. Fitzsimmons, "Surface Water Pollution," in Environmental and Pollution Science, 2019, pp. 261-292.
  [14] S. K. Sharma, B. Petrusevski, and G. Amy, "Chromium removal from water: a review," Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology—AQUA, vol. 57, no. 8, pp. 541-553, 2008.
  [15] M. Hasanpour and M. Hatami, "Application of three dimensional porous aerogels as adsorbent for removal of heavy metal ions from water/wastewater: A review study," Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, vol. 284, p. 102247, 2020.
  [16] S. A. Katz and H. Salem, "The toxicology of chromium with respect to its chemical speciation: a review," Journal of Applied Toxicology, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 217-224, 1993.
  [17] J. A. Oates, Lime and limestone: chemistry and technology, production and uses. John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
  [18] J. B. Regnet, C. David, P. Robion, and B. Menéndez, "Microstructures and physical properties in carbonate rocks: A comprehensive review," Marine and Petroleum Geology, vol. 103, pp. 366-376, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2019.02.022.
  [19] C. Ortiz, J. Valverde, R. Chacartegui, L. A. Perez-Maqueda, and P. Giménez, "The calcium-looping (CaCO3/CaO) process for thermochemical energy storage in concentrating solar power plants," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 113, p. 109252, 2019.
  [20] B. Sarrion, J. M. Valverde, A. Perejon, L. Perez?Maqueda, and P. E. Sanchez?Jimenez, "On the multicycle activity of natural limestone/dolomite for thermochemical energy storage of concentrated solar power," Energy Technology, vol. 4, no. 8, pp. 1013-1019, 2016.
  [21] M. K?pniak, P. Woyciechowski, and W. Franus, "Chemical and physical properties of limestone powder as a potential microfiller of polymer composites," Archives of Civil Engineering, vol. 63, no. 2, pp. 67--78, 2017.
  [22] K. GracePavithra, V. Jaikumar, P. S. Kumar, and P. SundarRajan, "A review on cleaner strategies for chromium industrial wastewater: present research and future perspective," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 228, pp. 580-593, 2019.
  [23] M. Z. A. Zaimee, M. S. Sarjadi, and M. L. Rahman, "Heavy Metals Removal from Water by Efficient Adsorbents," Water, vol. 13, no. 19, 2021, doi: 10.3390/w13192659.
  [24] S. Manjunatha and S. Girisha, "Isolation and Screening of Chlorella Sorokiniana for Wastewater Treatment and Biodiesel Production," International Journal of Scientific Research in Biological Sciences, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 59-67, 2019.
  [25] S. Singh, I. J. Chaudhary, and P. Kumar, "Utilization of low-cost agricultural waste for removal of toxic metals from environment: A review," Int. J. Sci. Res. in Biological Sciences Vol, vol. 6, p. 4, 2019.
  [26] A. Bakar, N. F. Razak, N. Akbar, N. Daud, and K. Ali, "Removal of Cr (III) from industrial wastewater using coconut shell carbon and limestone as adsorbent," in IOP conference series: Earth and environmental science, 2021, vol. 646, no. 1: IOP Publishing, p. 012063.
  [27] H. A. Aziz, M. N. Adlan, and K. S. Ariffin, "Heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Zn, Ni, Cu and Cr(III)) removal from water in Malaysia: post treatment by high quality limestone," Bioresour Technol, vol. 99, no. 6, pp. 1578-83, Apr 2008, doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2007.04.007.
  [28] A. Garc?a-Sánchez and E. Alvarez-Ayuso, "Sorption of Zn, Cd and Cr on calcite. Application to purification of industrial wastewaters," Minerals Engineering, vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 539-547, 2002.
  [29] K. Cave and F. I. Talens-Alesson, "Comparative effect of Mn (II) and Fe (III) as activators and inhibitors of the adsorption of other heavy metals on calcite," Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, vol. 268, no. 1-3, pp. 19-23, 2005.
  [30] N. A. Akbar, H. A. Aziz, and M. N. Adlan, "The Characteristics of Limestone and Anthracite Coal as Filter Media in Treating Pollutants from Groundwater," International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 58-62, 2021, doi: 10.18178/ijesd.2021.12.2.1318.
  [31] Y. Wang and E. J. Reardon, "A siderite/limestone reactor to remove arsenic and cadmium from wastewaters," Applied Geochemistry, vol. 16, no. 9-10, pp. 1241-1249, 2001.
  [32] H. A. Aziz, "Removal of copper from water using limestone filtration technique Determination of mechanism of removal," Environment International, vol. 26, pp. 395-399, 2001.
  [33] M. B. Aregu, S. L. Asfaw, and M. M. Khan, "Identification of two low-cost and locally available filter media (pumice and scoria) for removal of hazardous pollutants from tannery wastewater," Environmental Systems Research, vol. 7, no. 1, 2018, doi: 10.1186/s40068-018-0112-2.
  [34] D. Smith and D. Mead, "The solution of limestone with special reference to Mendip," in Proceedings of the University of Bristol Speleological Society, 1962, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 188-211.
  [35] J. Lee Mason and L. F. Mehne, "Carbon Dioxide from Limestone," Science Activities, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 22-25, 1986.
  [36] T. Hill and M. Sirbescu, "Micro-XRF mapping of chemically zoned beryl: Fast, non-destructive, and precise," Microscopy and Microanalysis, vol. 28, no. S1, pp. 624-628, 2022.
  [37] J. Anzelmo, A. Seyfarth, and L. Arias, "Approaching a universal sample preparation method for XRF analysis of powder materials," Adv. in X-ray Anal, vol. 44, pp. 368-373, 2001.
  [38] R. S. Hwidi, T. N. T. Izhar, and F. N. M. Saad, "Characterization of limestone as raw material to hydrated lime," in E3S Web of Conferences, 2018, vol. 34: EDP Sciences, p. 02042.
  [39] A. M. Silva, F. L. Cruz, R. M. Lima, M. C. Teixeira, and V. A. Leao, "Manganese and limestone interactions during mine water treatment," J Hazard Mater, vol. 181, no. 1-3, pp. 514-20, Sep 15 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.05.044.
  [40] J. Anwar, U. Shafique, M. Salman, S. Anwar, and J. M. Anzano, "Removal of chromium (III) by using coal as adsorbent," Journal of hazardous materials, vol. 171, no. 1-3, pp. 797-801, 2009.
  [41] R. D. Beaty and J. D. Kerber, Concepts, instrumentation and techniques in atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Perkin-Elmer Instruments, 2002.
  [42] A. El-Taher and M. A. K. Abdelhalim, "Elemental analysis of limestone by instrumental neutron activation analysis," Journal of radioanalytical and nuclear chemistry, vol. 299, pp. 1949-1953, 2014.
  [43] J. P. Grime et al., "The response of two contrasting limestone grasslands to simulated climate change," Science, vol. 289, no. 5480, pp. 762-765, 2000.
  [44] S. Tsivilis, E. Chaniotakis, E. Badogiannis, G. Pahoulas, and A. Ilias, "A study on the parameters affecting the properties of Portland limestone cements," Cement and concrete composites, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 107-116, 1999.
  [45] B. Köhler et al., "Changes in the species composition and conservation value of limestone grasslands in Northern Switzerland after 22 years of contrasting managements," Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 51-67, 2005.
  [46] S. Ehrenberg, G. Eberli, M. Keramati, and S. Moallemi, "Porosity-permeability relationships in interlayered limestone-dolostone reservoirs," AAPG bulletin, vol. 90, no. 1, pp. 91-114, 2006.
  [47] W. Li, P.-P. Zhou, L.-P. Jia, L.-J. Yu, X.-L. Li, and M. Zhu, "Limestone dissolution induced by fungal mycelia, acidic materials, and carbonic anhydrase from fungi," Mycopathologia, vol. 167, pp. 37-46, 2009.
  [48] A. Balog, N. Cobîrzan, and E. Mosonyi, "Microstructural analysis for investigation of limestone damages-a case study of the Fortress Wall of Cluj-Napoca, Romania," Rom. J. Phys, vol. 59, no. 5-6, pp. 608-613, 2014.
  [49] S. Arwini, "Porosity-permeability relationship of libyan carbonate reservoir in defa oil field," World Acad J Eng Sci, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 32-44, 2020.
  [50] C. Noiriel, P. Gouze, and D. Bernard, "Investigation of porosity and permeability effects from microstructure changes during limestone dissolution," Geophysical research letters, vol. 31, no. 24, 2004.
  [51] R. Bartlett and J. Kimble, "Behavior of chromium in soils. II. Hexavalent forms," J. Environ. Qual.;(United States), vol. 5, no. 4, 1976.
  [52] M. Chuan and J. Liu, "Release behavior of chromium from tannery sludge," Water Research, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 932-938, 1996.
  [53] T. Xu et al., "Effect of soil pH on the transport, fractionation, and oxidation of chromium (III)," Ecotoxicology and environmental safety, vol. 195, p. 110459, 2020.
  [54] B. Mukhopadhyay, J. Sundquist, and R. J. Schmitz, "Removal of Cr (VI) from Cr-contaminated groundwater through electrochemical addition of Fe (II)," Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 82, no. 1, pp. 66-76, 2007.
  [55] G. Blázquez, F. Hernáinz, M. Calero, M. Martín-Lara, and G. Tenorio, "The effect of pH on the biosorption of Cr (III) and Cr (VI) with olive stone," Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 148, no. 2-3, pp. 473-479, 2009.
  [56] A. K. Golder, A. N. Samanta, and S. Ray, "Removal of trivalent chromium by electrocoagulation," Separation and purification technology, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 33-41, 2007.
  [57] A. Esmaeili and R. Vazirinejad, "Chromium (III) removal and recovery from tannery wastewater by precipitation process," 2005.
  [58] F. Gode and E. Pehlivan, "A comparative study of two chelating ion-exchange resins for the removal of chromium (III) from aqueous solution," Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 100, no. 1-3, pp. 231-243, 2003.
  [59] A. Adamczuk and D. Ko?ody?ska, "Equilibrium, thermodynamic and kinetic studies on removal of chromium, copper, zinc and arsenic from aqueous solutions onto fly ash coated by chitosan," Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 274, pp. 200-212, 2015.
  [60] S. Iftekhar, D. L. Ramasamy, V. Srivastava, M. B. Asif, and M. Sillanpää, "Understanding the factors affecting the adsorption of Lanthanum using different adsorbents: a critical review," Chemosphere, vol. 204, pp. 413-430, 2018.
  [61] V. Fierro, Y. Schuurman, and C. Mirodatos, "Simultaneous determination of intrinsic adsorption and diffusion of n-butane in activated carbons by using the TAP reactor," Studies in surface science and catalysis, pp. 241-247, 2006.
  [62] A. Sdiri and S. Bouaziz, "Re-evaluation of several heavy metals removal by natural limestones," Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 418-432, 2014, doi: 10.1007/s11705-014-1455-5.
  [63] Z. Shahryari, A. S. Goharrizi, and M. Azadi, "Experimental study of methylene blue adsorption from aqueous solutions onto carbon nano tubes," International Journal of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 016-028, 2010.
  [64] R. Kumar, N. R. Bishnoi, and K. Bishnoi, "Biosorption of chromium (VI) from aqueous solution and electroplating wastewater using fungal biomass," Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 135, no. 3, pp. 202-208, 2008.
  [65] P. Meshram, S. K. Sahu, B. D. Pandey, V. Kumar, and T. R. Mankhand, "Removal of chromium (III) from the waste solution of an indian tannery by amberlite IR 120 resin," 2012.
  [66] R. Saadi, Z. Saadi, R. Fazaeli, and N. E. Fard, "Monolayer and multilayer adsorption isotherm models for sorption from aqueous media," Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, vol. 32, pp. 787-799, 2015.
  [67] O. Fatoki and A. Ogunfowokan, "Effect of coagulant treatment on the metal composition of raw water," Water Sa, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 293-298, 2002.
  [68] K. C. Sekhar, S. Subramanian, J. Modak, and K. Natarajan, "Removal of metal ions using an industrial biomass with reference to environmental control," International Journal of Mineral Processing, vol. 53, no. 1-2, pp. 107-120, 1998.
  [69] A. Hafiane, D. Lemordant, and M. Dhahbi, "Removal of hexavalent chromium by nanofiltration," Desalination, vol. 130, no. 3, pp. 305-312, 2000.

  Citation
  Medard Mathew Muna, Benson Ongarora, Paul Tanui, "Removal of Chromium (III) from Aqueous Solution Using Limestone Rock Chippings," International Journal of Scientific Research in Chemical Sciences, Vol.10, Issue.2, pp.15-24, 2023

• Open Access   Article

  Investigation of Active Chemical Bulk Present in Solution of Beetroot Juice and Rose water Spectrophotometrically

  Neha Joshi, Vinay Marmat

  Research Paper | Journal-Paper (IJSRCS)

  Vol.10 , Issue.2 , pp.25-28, Apr-2023

  Abstract

  Full-Text HTML

  References

  Citation

  Abstract
  Betanin is pharmacologically active component of beetroot which is responsible for its antioxidant activity. Spectrometry refers to the quantitative estimation of the reflection or transmission properties of a chemical substance. In this research work, the device is used to quantify the optical density of the solution. The amount of pigment present in the solution influences the reading of optical density of the solution so that a solution with more pigments will be associated with higher reading of optical density and lower reading of transmittance. In spectrophotometric techniques, the atom or molecule absorbs a convinced quantum of energy which causes to achieve higher energy level in the atom or molecule. Present Paper is the study of effect of concentration of betanin on their pharmacological application via calculating transmittance and absorbance analysis of pure Beetroot, rose water and in combination helps to the researchers to explore more about clinical significance of betanin pigment of beet root mixed with rosewater.

  Key-Words / Index Term
  Betanin, Pharmacological application, Beetroot, Rose water, Spectrometry, Electromagnetic Radiation.

  References
  [1]. T. Clifford, G. Howatson, D.J. Wesst, and E.J. Stevenson, “The potential benefits of red beetroots supplementation in health and disease” Nutrients MDPI, Vol. 7, pp. 2807-2822, 2015.
  [2]. D.D.S. Baiao, D. Silva, E.M.D. Aguila, V.M.F. Paschoalin, Nutritional bioactive and physicochemical characteristics oof different beetroot formulations. In food Additives, In-tech survey Canada, pp. 22-43 2017.
  [3]. L.Chen, Y. Zhu, Z. Hu, SS. Wu, C. Jin, “Beetroot ass a functional food with huge health benefits: Antioxidant, Antitumor, physical function and chronic metabolomics activity. Food Science & Nutrition, vol. 9, issue 11, pp. 6406-6420.
  [4]. D. Snizhko, O. Sushko, E. Reshetnyak, D. Shtofel, Zyska T., Smolarz A., Mussabekov N., Kalizhanova A., Colorimeter based on color sensor. Prazeglad Elektro techniczny ,vol. 93, 2017.
  [5]. M.H. Sorouraddin, M. Saadati, Simple, cheap, and portable colorimeter for introductory analytical chemistry laboratory. Chemistry, vol. 18, pp. 176-182, 2009.
  [6]. E. Abdo, S. El-Sohaimy, O. Shaltout, A. Abdalla, A. Zeitoun, Nutritional evaluation of beetroots (Beta vulgaris L.) and its potential application in a functional beverage. Plants MDPI, vol. 9, pp. 1752, 2020.
  [7]. M. Gilchrist, P.G. Winyard, J. Fulford, C. Anning, A.C. Shore, N. Benjamin, Dietary nitrate supplementation improves reaction time in type-2 dibetes: development and application of a novel nitrate-depleted beetroot juice placebo. Nitric Oxide, vol. 40, pp. 67-74, 2014.
  [8]. A. F. Rukhmini, Areview on herbal lipstick from beetroot extract. International journal of creative research thoughts, vol. 10, issue 12, pp. 635-641.
  [9]. I. Dhananjayan, S. Kathiroli, S. Subramani, V. Veerasamy, Ameliorating effect of betanin, a natural chromoalkaloid by modulating hepatic carbohydrate metabolic enzyme activities and glycogen content in streptozotocin- nicotinamide induced experimental ratsss. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, vol. 88, pp. 1069-1079, 2017.
  [10]. P. Nifali, D. Angelino. Nutritional and functional potential of Beta vulgaris cicla and rubra. Fitoterapia. Vol. 89, pp. 188-199, 2013.

  Citation
  Neha Joshi, Vinay Marmat, "Investigation of Active Chemical Bulk Present in Solution of Beetroot Juice and Rose water Spectrophotometrically," International Journal of Scientific Research in Chemical Sciences, Vol.10, Issue.2, pp.25-28, 2023

• Open Access   Article

  Efficacy of Quaternary Ammonium Functionalized Waste Paper Bio-Coagulant for Removal of Fluoride Ions from Aqueous Solution

  Kithinji Adams Mawira, Esther Wanja Nthiga, Gerald K. Muthakia

  Research Paper | Journal-Paper (IJSRCS)

  Vol.10 , Issue.2 , pp.29-37, Apr-2023

  Abstract

  Full-Text HTML

  References

  Citation

  Abstract
  Fluorides are one of the many pollutants found in water. At low concentration, fluorides are essential for improving the density and hardness of bones and teeth enamel during their growth. A concentration greater than 1.5 mg/L in drinking water has several detrimental effects on human health, including dental and skeletal fluorosis. There are several methods employed to rid water of fluorides. These include, reverse osmosis, adsorption, ion exchange, coagulation and flocculation. This study focuses on removal of fluorides from aqueous solutions by coagulation using quaternary ammonium functionalized waste paper bio-coagulant. Quaternary ammonium compounds were synthesized from waste paper by first nitrating cellulose present in waste paper. The attached nitro groups, were reduced to amine groups and quaternization was done using methyl iodide. The prepared bio-coagulant was characterized using FTIR and TGA. The coagulant was used to remove fluorides from model solutions and real water samples from Gilgil area in Nakuru county, Kenya. A fluoride ISE was used to determine fluoride ion concentration in each model solution and in the real water samples. Optimized parameters included pH, initial fluoride ion concentration, contact time and bio-coagulant dosage. Characterization data confirmed successful quaternization was achieved. Thermal stability of the material was up to a temperature of 563.15 K. The optimum pH value was 4.0 while the contact time was 15 minutes. Fluoride removal increased with increase in initial concentration up to an optimum 20 mg/L. Fluoride removal was also observed to increase with increase in coagulant dosage. Obtained data fitted well on Langmuir adsorption isotherm with R2 value of 0.9707, confirming chemisorption as the predominant intermediate process. An adsorption capacity of 3.6311 mg/g was obtained. Fluoride ion removal percentage in the model solution was 81% and 66.25% in the real water sample.

  Key-Words / Index Term
  Coagulation, Bio-coagulation, Fluoride, Quaternary ammonium, Water, Adsorption

  References
  [1] D. Mohan, R. Sharma, V. K. Singh, P. Steele, and C. U. Pittman, “Fluoride Removal from Water using Bio-Char, a Green Waste, Low-Cost Adsorbent: Equilibrium Uptake and Sorption Dynamics Modeling,” Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 900–914, Jan. 2012, doi: 10.1021/ie202189v.
  [2] S. K. Singh, S. Shweta, M. Shrivastava, and S. Aggarwal, “Fluoride Removal from Drinking Water by Pristine Pumice as Adsorbent,” RJC, Vol. 13, No. 04, Pp. 2603–2608, 2020, Doi: 10.31788/RJC.2020.1345967.
  [3] N. Khairul Zaman, R. Rohani, I. Izni Yusoff, M. Kamsol, S. Basiron, and A. Abd. Rashid, “Eco-Friendly Coagulant versus Industrially Used Coagulants: Identification of Their Coagulation Performance, Mechanism and Optimization in Water Treatment Process,” IJERPH, vol. 18, no. 17, p. 9164, Aug. 2021, doi: 10.3390/ijerph18179164.
  [4] S. Lavrova-Popova and S. Stoyanova, “Nitrate Anions Removal from Water Using Surface Modified Clinoptilolite,” Journal of Water and Environmental Sciences, Vol. 2, P. 7, 2018.
  [5] H. Sweidan, M. Hamouda, H. El-Hassan, And M. Maraqa, “A Framework for The Investigation Of Biowaste Materials As Potential Adsorbents For Water Treatment,” The 4th World Congress on Civil, Structural, and Environmental Engineering. Apr. 2019. Doi: 10.11159/Iceptp19.141.
  [6] M. Priyatharishini, N. M. Mokhtar, and R. A. Kristanti, “Study on the Effectiveness of Banana Peel Coagulant in Turbidity Reduction of Synthetic Wastewater,” International Journal of Engineering Technology and Sciences, p. 10, 2019.
  [7] E. Gauthier, I. Fortier, F. Courchesne, P. Pepin, J. Mortimer, and D. Gauvreau, “Aluminum Forms in Drinking Water and Risk of Alzheimer’s Disease,” Environmental Research, vol. 84, no. 3, pp. 234–246, Nov. 2000, doi: 10.1006/enrs.2000.4101.
  [8] V. Kumar, N. Othman, and S. Asharuddin, “Applications of Natural Coagulants to Treat Wastewater ? A Review,” MATEC Web Conf., vol. 103, p. 06016, 2017, doi: 10.1051/matecconf/201710306016.
  [9] M. Latifian, J. Liu, and B. Mattiasson, “Recovery of struvite via coagulation and flocculation using natural compounds,” Environmental Technology, vol. 35, no. 18, pp. 2289–2295, Sep. 2014, doi: 10.1080/09593330.2014.902110.
  [10] S. B. Kurniawan et al., “What compound inside biocoagulants/bioflocculants is contributing the most to the coagulation and flocculation processes?,” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 806, p. 150902, Feb. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150902.
  [11] H. T. Nhut et al., “Use of Moringa oleifera seeds powder as bio-coagulants for the surface water treatment,” Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 18, no. 8, pp. 2173–2180, Aug. 2021, doi: 10.1007/s13762-020-02935-2.
  [12] H. Kristianto, “The Potency of Indonesia Native Plants as Natural Coagulant: a Mini Review,” Water Conserv Sci Eng, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 51–60, Jul. 2017, doi: 10.1007/s41101-017-0024-4.
  [13] B. Othmani, M. G. Rasteiro, and M. Khadhraoui, “Toward green technology: a review on some efficient model plant-based coagulants/flocculants for freshwater and wastewater remediation,” Clean Techn Environ Policy, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 1025–1040, Jul. 2020, doi: 10.1007/s10098-020-01858-3.
  [14] M. Faisal, A. Z. Pamungkas, and Y. K. Krisnandi, “Study of Amine Functionalized Mesoporous Carbon as CO2 Storage Materials,” Processes, vol. 9, no. 3, p. 456, Mar. 2021, doi: 10.3390/pr9030456.
  [15] Y. S. Solanki, M. Agarwal, K. Maheshwari, S. Gupta, P. Shukla, and A. B. Gupta, “Removal of fluoride from water by using a coagulant (inorganic polymeric coagulant),” Environ Sci Pollut Res, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 3897–3905, Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1007/s11356-020-09579-2.
  [16] K. A. S. Meraz, S. M. P. Vargas, J. T. L. Maldonado, J. M. C. Bravo, M. T. O. Guzman, and E. A. L. Maldonado, “Eco-friendly innovation for nejayote coagulation–flocculation process using chitosan: Evaluation through zeta potential measurements,” Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 284, pp. 536–542, Jan. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2015.09.026.
  [17] Z. Daud, N. Nasir, And H. Awang, “Treatment Of Biodiesel Wastewater By Coagulation And Flocculation Using Polyaluminum Chloride,” Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences,P. 6, 2013.
  [18] O. Galkina and H. Blahodarna, “The Use of Effective Coagulants and Flocculants to Intensify the Process of Water Purification at Coke Plants,” Slovak Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 21–28, Jun. 2019, doi: 10.2478/sjce-2019-0012.
  [19] C. A. Igwegbe and O. D. Onukwuli, “Removal of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) from Aquaculture Wastewater by Coagulation- flocculation Process using Sesamum indicum extract: Effect of Operating Parameters and Coagulation-Flocculation kinetics,” The Pharmaceutical and Chemical Journal, 2019, vol. 6 no.4 pp. 32-45.
  [20] T. Akafu, A. Chimdi, and K. Gomoro, “Removal of Fluoride from Drinking Water by Sorption Using Diatomite Modified with Aluminum Hydroxide,” Journal of Analytical Methods in Chemistry, vol. 2019, pp. 1–11, Dec. 2019, doi: 10.1155/2019/4831926.
  [21] ?. Akanyeti and M.-C. Ferrari, “Hybrid sorbent-ultrafiltration systems for fluoride removal from water,” Separation Science and Technology, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 348–358, Jan. 2016, doi: 10.1080/01496395.2015.1093504.
  [22] G. Chen, C. Peng, J. Fang, Y. Dong, X. Zhu, and H. Cai, “Biosorption of fluoride from drinking water using spent mushroom compost biochar coated with aluminum hydroxide,” Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 57, no. 26, pp. 12385–12395, Jun. 2016, doi: 10.1080/19443994.2015.1049959.
  [23] G. Mbugua, I. Mwangi, R. Wanjau, M. A. Ollengo, E. W. Nthiga, and J. C. Ngila, “Facile removal of Fluoride Ions from water using Triethylamine Modified Polyethylene Adsorbent,” Asia. Jour. Rese. Chem., vol. 13, no. 1, p. 60, 2020, doi: 10.5958/0974-4150.2020.00013.9.
  [24] I. Mwangi, G. Mbugua, R. Wanjau, S. Sauda, T. Msagati, and J. C. Ngila, “Removal of Fluoride Ions in Stored Drinking Water by Triethylamine Chemically Modified Polyethylene Containers,” Int J Environ Res, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 175–184, Feb. 2019, doi: 10.1007/s41742-018-0163-2.
  [25] C. Kamathi Mwangi, I. W. Mwangi, R. N. Wanjau, S. Swaleh, M. Ram, and J. C. Ngila, “Remediation of Fluoride Laden Water by Complexation with Triethylamine Modified Maize Tassels,” ENRR, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 44, Jan. 2016, doi: 10.5539/enrr.v6n1p44.
  [26] A. N. Aayef et al., “An experimental study for adapting electrocoagulation as a technique for fluoride removal from water,” IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng., vol. 1058, no. 1, p. 012012, Feb. 2021, doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/1058/1/012012.
  [27] N. Ozairi, S. A. Mousavi, M. T. Samadi, A. Seidmohammadi, and D. Nayeri, “Removal of fluoride from water using coagulation-flocculation process: a comparative study,” DWT, vol. 180, pp. 265–270, 2020, doi: 10.5004/dwt.2020.25064.
  [28] L. A. Dagnaw, B. S. Chandravanshi, F. Zewge, and A. Ababa, “Fluoride Content of Leafy Vegetables, Irrigation Water, and Farmland Soil in The Rift Valley and in Non-Rift Valley Areas Of Ethiopia,” Research report, 2017.
  [29] M. G. A. Vieira and S. C. S. Rocha, “Drying conditions influence on physical properties of recycled paper,” Chemical Engineering and Processing - Process Intensification, vol. 46, no. 10, pp. 955–963, Oct. 2007, doi: 10.1016/j.cep.2007.06.006.
  [30] Yu. A. Gismatulina, V. V. Budaeva, and G. V. Sakovich, “Cellulose nitrates from intermediate flax straw,” Russ Chem Bull, vol. 65, no. 12, pp. 2920–2924, Dec. 2016, doi: 10.1007/s11172-016-1678-3.
  [31] G. V. Sakovich, Yu. M. Mikhailov, V. V. Budaeva, A. A. Korchagina, Yu. A. Gismatulina, and N. V. Kozyrev, “Cellulose Nitrates from Unconventional Feedstocks,” Dokl Chem, vol. 483, no. 1, pp. 287–291, Dec. 2018, doi: 10.1134/S0012500818110101.
  [32] A. F. Tarchoun, D. Trache, T. M. Klapötke, and B. Krumm, “New insensitive nitrogen-rich energetic polymers based on amino-functionalized cellulose and microcrystalline cellulose: Synthesis and characterization,” Fuel, vol. 277, p. 118258, Oct. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118258.
  [33] T.-Y. Chou, P. Vouros, M. David, M. Saha, and R. W. Giese, “Replacement of aromatic fluorine by a methoxy group during reaction with methyl iodide inN,N-dimethylformamide solvent,” Biol. Mass Spectrom., vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 23–27, Jan. 1987, doi: 10.1002/bms.1200140107.
  [34] A. K. Agarwal, M. S. Kadu, C. P. Pandhurnekar, And I. L. Muthreja, “Langmuir, Freundlich And BET Adsorption Isotherm Studies For Zinc Ions Onto Coal Fly Ash,” IJAIEM, Vol. 3, No. 1, P. 9, 2014.
  [35] V. Hospodarova, E. Singovszka, and N. Stevulova, “Characterization of Cellulosic Fibers by FTIR Spectroscopy for Their Further Implementation to Building Materials,” AJAC, vol. 09, no. 06, pp. 303–310, 2018, doi: 10.4236/ajac.2018.96023.
  [36] F. Xue, H. He, H. Zhu, H. Huang, Q. Wu, and S. Wang, “Structural Design of a Cellulose-Based Solid Amine Adsorbent for the Complete Removal and Colorimetric Detection of Cr (VI),” Langmuir, vol. 35, no. 39, pp. 12636–12646, Oct. 2019, doi: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b01788.
  [37] S. M. Gumel and B. B. Dambatta, “Application and Evaluation of the Performance of Poly (Vinyl Alcohol) and its Blend with Nitrocelulose in Leather Top Coating,” IJCEA, pp. 249–253, 2013, doi: 10.7763/IJCEA.2013.V4.305.
  [38] L. S. Silva et al., “Potential of amino-functionalized cellulose as an alternative sorbent intended to remove anionic dyes from aqueous solutions,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, vol. 116, pp. 1282–1295, Sep. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.05.034.
  [39] G. Joshi, S. Naithani, V. K. Varshney, S. S. Bisht, V. Rana, and P. K. Gupta, “Synthesis and characterization of carboxymethyl cellulose from office waste paper: A greener approach towards waste management,” Waste Management, vol. 38, pp. 33–40, Apr. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2014.11.015.
  [40] Y. A. Gismatulina, V. V. Budaeva, and G. V. Sakovich, “Nitrocellulose Synthesis from Miscanthus Cellulose,” Prop., Explos., Pyrotech., vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 96–100, Jan. 2018, doi: 10.1002/prep.201700210.
  [41] M. N. Costa et al., “A low cost, safe, disposable, rapid and self-sustainable paper-based platform for diagnostic testing: lab-on-paper,” Nanotechnology, vol. 25, no. 9, p. 094006, Mar. 2014, doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/25/9/094006.
  [42] Y. Dong et al., “Design and synthesis of amine-functionalized cellulose with multiple binding sites and their application in C C bond forming reactions,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, vol. 130, pp. 778–785, Jun. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.02.158.
  [43] I. Yudovin-Farber, N. Beyth, E. I. Weiss, and A. J. Domb, “Antibacterial effect of composite resins containing quaternary ammonium polyethyleneimine nanoparticles,” J Nanopart Res, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 591–603, Feb. 2010, doi: 10.1007/s11051-009-9628-8.
  [44] S. C. M. Fernandes et al., “Bioinspired Antimicrobial and Biocompatible Bacterial Cellulose Membranes Obtained by Surface Functionalization with Aminoalkyl Groups,” ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, vol. 5, no. 8, pp. 3290–3297, Apr. 2013, doi: 10.1021/am400338n.
  [45] D. Xu, J. Feng, and S. Che, “An insight into the role of the surfactant CTAB in the formation of microporous molecular sieves,” Dalton Trans., vol. 43, no. 9, pp. 3612–3617, 2014, doi: 10.1039/C3DT53308E.
  [46] E. M. Kinyua, I. W. Mwangi, R. N. Wanjau, and J. C. Ngila, “Clarification of colloidal and suspended material in water using triethanolamine modified maize tassels,” Environ Sci Pollut Res, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 5214–5221, Mar. 2016, doi: 10.1007/s11356-015-5766-y.
  [47] X. Lv et al., “Construction of a quaternary ammonium salt platform with different alkyl groups for antibacterial and biosensor applications,” RSC Adv., vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 2941–2949, 2018, doi: 10.1039/C7RA11001D.
  [48] Ali. E. I. Elkhalifah, S. Maitra, M. Azmi Bustam, and T. Murugesan, “Thermogravimetric analysis of different molar mass ammonium cations intercalated different cationic forms of montmorillonite,” J Therm Anal Calorim, vol. 110, no. 2, pp. 765–771, Nov. 2012, doi: 10.1007/s10973-011-1977-8.
  [49] Q. Zhang, S. Hu, L. Zhang, Z. Wu, Y. Gong, And T. Dou, “Electronic Supplementary Information (ESI): Facile Fabrication of Mesopore Containing ZSM-5 Zeolite From Spent Zeolite Catalyst For Methanol To Propylene Reaction,” Green Chemistry, P. 14, 2013.
  [50] O. E. Zhuravlev, V. M. Nikol’skii, and L. I. Voronchikhina, “Thermal stability of quaternary ammonium hexafluorophosphates and halides,” Russ J Appl Chem, vol. 86, no. 6, pp. 824–830, Jun. 2013, doi: 10.1134/S1070427213060062.
  [51] C. Kamathi Mwangi, I. W. Mwangi, R. N. Wanjau, S. Swaleh, M. Ram, and J. C. Ngila, “Remediation of Fluoride Laden Water by Complexation with Triethylamine Modified Maize Tassels,” ENRR, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 44, Jan. 2016, doi: 10.5539/enrr.v6n1p44.
  [52] E. W. Wambu, C. O. Onindo, W. Ambusso, and G. K. Muthakia, “Removal of Fluoride from Aqueous Solutions by Adsorption Using a Siliceous Mineral of a Kenyan Origin,” Clean Soil Air Water, vol. 41, no. 4, pp. 340–348, Apr. 2013, doi: 10.1002/clen.201100171.
  [53] X. Liu, Y. Wang, X. Cui, S. Zhu, and J. Cao, “Fluoride Removal from Wastewater by Natural and Modified Gibbsite,” J. Chem. Eng. Data, vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 658–668, Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1021/acs.jced.0c00815.
  [54] S. Jagtap, D. Thakre, S. Wanjari, S. Kamble, N. Labhsetwar, and S. Rayalu, “New modified chitosan-based adsorbent for defluoridation of water,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, vol. 332, no. 2, pp. 280–290, Apr. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2008.11.080.
  [55] C. Djelloul, A. Hasseine, and O. Hamdaoui, “Adsorption of cationic dye from aqueous solution by milk thistle seeds: Isotherm, kinetic and thermodynamic studies,” DWT, vol. 78, pp. 313–320, 2017, doi: 10.5004/dwt.2017.20920.
  [56] A. H. Jawad et al., “Microwave-assisted preparation of mesoporous-activated carbon from coconut (Cocos nucifera) leaf by H 3 PO 4 activation for methylene blue adsorption,” Chemical Engineering Communications, vol. 204, no. 10, pp. 1143–1156, Oct. 2017, doi: 10.1080/00986445.2017.1347565.
  [57] G. Anusha and J. R. Murugadoss, “Adsorption of Fluoride from Aqueous Phase by Agro Based Adsorbent,” IJSR, Vol. 3, No. 9, 2012.

  Citation
  Kithinji Adams Mawira, Esther Wanja Nthiga, Gerald K. Muthakia, "Efficacy of Quaternary Ammonium Functionalized Waste Paper Bio-Coagulant for Removal of Fluoride Ions from Aqueous Solution," International Journal of Scientific Research in Chemical Sciences, Vol.10, Issue.2, pp.29-37, 2023